Neuronal integration in the adult mouse olfactory bulb is a non-selective addition process.

Adult neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb (OB) is considered as a competition in which neurons scramble during a critical selection period for integration and survival. Moreover, newborn neurons are thought to replace pre-existing ones that die. Despite indirect evidence supporting this model, systematic in vivo observations are still scarce. We used two-photon in vivo imaging to study neuronal integration and survival. We show that loss of new neurons in the OB after arrival at terminal positions occurs only at low levels. Moreover, long-term observations showed that no substantial cell death occurred at later stages. Neuronal death was induced by standard doses of thymidine analogs, but disappeared when low doses were used. Finally, we demonstrate that the OB grows throughout life. This shows that neuronal selection during OB-neurogenesis does not occur after neurons reached stable positions. Moreover, this suggests that OB neurogenesis does not represent neuronal turnover but lifelong neuronal addition.

Regulation of neuronal pH by the metabotropic Zn(2+)-sensing Gq-coupled receptor, mZnR/GPR39.

Synaptically released Zn(2+) acts as a neurotransmitter, in part, by activating the postsynaptic metabotropic Zn(2+)-sensing Gq protein-coupled receptor (mZnR/GPR39). In previous work using epithelial cells, we described crosstalk between Zn(2+) signaling and changes in intracellular pH and/or extracellular pH (pHe). As pH changes accompany neuronal activity under physiological and pathological conditions, we tested whether Zn(2+) signaling is involved in regulation of neuronal pH. Here, we report that up-regulation of a major H(+) extrusion pathway, the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE), is induced by mZnR/GPR39 activation in an extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2-dependent manner in hippocampal neurons in vitro. We also observed that changes in pHe can modulate neuronal mZnR/GPR39-dependent signaling, resulting in reduced activity at pHe 8 or 6.5. Similarly, Zn(2+)-dependent extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 phosphorylation and up-regulation of NHE activity were absent at acidic pHe. Thus, our results suggest that when pHe is maintained within the physiological range, mZnR/GPR39 activation can up-regulate NHE-dependent recovery from intracellular acidification. During acidosis, as pHe drops, mZnR/GPR39-dependent NHE activation is inhibited, thereby attenuating further H(+) extrusion. This mechanism may serve to protect neurons from excessive decreases in pHe. Thus, mZnR/GPR39 signaling provides a homeostatic adaptive process for regulation of intracellular and extracellular pH changes in the brain. We show that the postsynaptic metabotropic Zn(2+)-sensing Gq protein-coupled receptor (mZnR/GPR39) activation induces up-regulation of a major neuronal H(+) extrusion pathway, the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE), thereby enhancing neuronal recovery from intracellular acidification. Changes in extracellular pH (pHe), however, modulate neuronal mZnR/GPR39-dependent signaling, resulting in reduced activity at pHe 8 or 6.5. This mechanism may serve to protect neurons from excessive decreases in pHe during acidosis. Hence, mZnR/GPR39 signaling provides a homeostatic adaptive process for regulation of intracellular and extracellular pH changes in the brain.

Cell-autonomous and cell-to-cell signalling events in normal and altered neuronal migration.

The cerebral cortex is a complex six-layered structure that contains an important diversity of neurons, and has rich local and extrinsic connectivity. Among the mechanisms governing the cerebral cortex construction, neuronal migration is perhaps the most crucial as it ensures the timely formation of specific and selective neuronal circuits. Here, we review the main extrinsic and extrinsic factors involved in regulating neuronal migration in the cortex and describe some environmental factors interfering with their actions.

Sensory-motor deficits and neurofilament disorganization in gigaxonin-null mice.

BACKGROUND: Giant Axonal Neuropathy (GAN) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder with early onset characterized by a severe deterioration of the peripheral and central nervous system, involving both the motor and the sensory tracts and leading to ataxia, speech defect and intellectual disabilities. The broad deterioration of the nervous system is accompanied by a generalized disorganization of the intermediate filaments, including neurofilaments in neurons, but the implication of this defect in disease onset or progression remains unknown. The identification of gigaxonin, the substrate adaptor of an E3 ubiquitin ligase, as the defective protein in GAN allows us to now investigate the crucial role of the gigaxonin-E3 ligase in sustaining neuronal and intermediate filament integrity. To study the mechanisms controlled by gigaxonin in these processes and to provide a relevant model to test the therapeutic approaches under development for GAN, we generated a Gigaxonin-null mouse by gene targeting. RESULTS: We investigated for the first time in Gigaxonin-null mice the deterioration of the motor and sensory functions over time as well as the spatial disorganization of neurofilaments. We showed that gigaxonin depletion in mice induces mild but persistent motor deficits starting at 60 weeks of age in the 129/SvJ-genetic background, while sensory deficits were demonstrated in C57BL/6 animals. In our hands, another gigaxonin-null mouse did not display the early and severe motor deficits reported previously. No apparent neurodegeneration was observed in our knock-out mice, but dysregulation of neurofilaments in proximal and distal axons was massive. Indeed, neurofilaments were not only more abundant but they also showed the abnormal increase in diameter and misorientation that are characteristics of the human pathology. CONCLUSIONS: Together, our results show that gigaxonin depletion in mice induces mild motor and sensory deficits but recapitulates the severe neurofilament dysregulation seen in patients. Our model will allow investigation of the role of the gigaxonin-E3 ligase in organizing neurofilaments and may prove useful in understanding the pathological processes engaged in other neurodegenerative disorders characterized by accumulation of neurofilaments and dysfunction of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.