Motor adaptation and immediate retention to overground gait-slip perturbation training in people with chronic stroke: an experimental trial with a comparison group.

Background: Perturbation-based training has shown to be effective in reducing fall-risk in people with chronic stroke (PwCS). However, most evidence comes from treadmill-based stance studies, with a lack of research focusing on training overground perturbed walking and exploring the relative contributions of the paretic and non-paretic limbs. This study thus examined whether PwCS could acquire motor adaptation and demonstrate immediate retention of fall-resisting skills following bilateral overground gait-slip perturbation training. Methods: 65 PwCS were randomly assigned to either (i) a training group, that received blocks of eight non-paretic (NP-S1 to NP-S8) and paretic (P-S1 to P-S8) overground slips during walking followed by a mixed block (seven non-paretic and paretic slips each interspersed with unperturbed walking trials) (NP-S9/P-S9 to NP-S15/P-S15) or (ii) a control group, that received a single non-paretic and paretic slip in random order. The assessor and training personnel were not blinded. Immediate retention was tested for the training group after a 30-minute rest break. Primary outcomes included laboratory-induced slip outcomes (falls and balance loss) and center of mass (CoM) state stability. Secondary outcomes to understand kinematic contributors to stability included recovery strategies, limb kinematics, slipping kinematics, and recovery stride length. Results: PwCS within the training group showed reduced falls (p < 0.01) and improved post-slip stability (p < 0.01) from the first trial to the last trial of both paretic and non-paretic slip blocks (S1 vs. S8). During the mixed block training, there was no further improvement in stability and slipping kinematics (S9 vs. S15) (p > 0.01). On comparing the first and last training trial (S1 vs. S15), post-slip stability improved on both non-paretic and paretic slips, however, pre-slip stability improved only on the non-paretic slip (p < 0.01). On the retention trials, the training group had fewer falls and greater post-slip stability than the control group on both non-paretic and paretic slips (p < 0.01). Post-slip stability on the paretic slip was lower than that on the non-paretic slip for both groups on retention trials (p < 0.01). Conclusion: PwCS can reduce laboratory-induced slip falls and backward balance loss outcomes by adapting their post-slip CoM state stability after bilateral overground gait-slip perturbation training. Such reactive adaptations were better acquired and retained post-training in PwCS especially on the non-paretic slips than paretic slips, suggesting a need for higher dosage for paretic slips. Clinical registry number: NCT03205527.

Corticomuscular Coherence in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy: A Feasibility and Preliminary Protocol Study.

Objective This study assessed the feasibility of corticomuscular coherence measurement during a goal-directed task in children with unilateral cerebral palsy while establishing optimal experimental parameters. Methods Participants (Manual Ability Classification System levels I-III) completed a submaximal isometric goal-directed grip task during simultaneous electroencephalography and electromyography (EMG) acquisition. Results All participants (n = 11, 6 females, mean age 11.3 ±2.4 years) completed corticomuscular coherence procedures. Of the 40 trials obtained per extremity, an average of 29 (n = 9) and 27 (n = 10) trials were retained from the more- and less-affected extremities, respectively. Obtaining measurement stability required an average of 28 trials per extremity. Conclusion Findings from this work support the feasibility of corticomuscular coherence measurement in children with unilateral cerebral palsy. Acquiring 28 to 40 corticomuscular coherence trials per extremity is ideal. The experimental parameters established in this work will inform future corticomuscular coherence application in pediatric unilateral cerebral palsy.

Leveraging Factors of Self-Efficacy and Motivation to Optimize Stroke Recovery.

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework recognizes that an individual's functioning post-stroke reflects an interaction between their health condition and contextual factors encompassing personal and environmental factors. Personal factors significantly impact rehabilitation outcomes as they determine how an individual evaluates their situation and copes with their condition in daily life. A key personal factor is self-efficacy-an individual's belief in their capacity to achieve certain outcomes. Self-efficacy influences an individual's motivational state to execute behaviors necessary for achieving desired rehabilitation outcomes. Stroke rehabilitation practice and research now acknowledge self-efficacy and motivation as critical elements in post-stroke recovery, and increasing evidence highlights their contributions to motor (re)learning. Given the informative value of neuroimaging-based biomarkers in stroke, elucidating the neurological underpinnings of self-efficacy and motivation may optimize post-stroke recovery. In this review, we examine the role of self-efficacy and motivation in stroke rehabilitation and recovery, identify potential neural substrates underlying these factors from current neuroimaging literature, and discuss how leveraging these factors and their associated neural substrates has the potential to advance the field of stroke rehabilitation.

Does stroke-induced sensorimotor impairment and perturbation intensity affect gait-slip outcomes?

People with chronic stroke (PwCS) demonstrate similar gait-slip fall-risk on both paretic and non-paretic side. Compensatory stepping and slipping limb control are crucial to reduce gait-slip fall-risk. Given the unpredictable intensities of real-life perturbations, this study aimed to determine whether recovery from paretic or non-paretic slips vary as a function of perturbation intensity among PwCS. Forty-four PwCS were assigned to non-paretic low intensity slip, non-paretic high intensity slip, paretic low intensity slip, or paretic high intensity slip group. Participants were subjected to a novel overground gait-slip with a distance of 24 cm (low) or 45 cm (high), under either limb. Recovery strategies, center of mass (CoM) state stability and slipping kinematics were analyzed. Both non-paretic high and low intensity groups demonstrated similar percentage of aborted and recovery stepping, however, paretic high intensity group demonstrated greater aborted stepping (p > 0.05). Both high and low intensity paretic slip groups demonstrated reduced post-slip CoM stability relative to the non-paretic slip groups (p < 0.05). Slip displacement was greater in paretic high group compared with non-paretic high group (p < 0.05). Greater slip displacement at higher intensity was noted only in paretic slip group (p < 0.05). The slip velocity was faster in paretic groups compared to non-paretic slip groups (p < 0.05). Paretic slips showed lower stability at both intensities associated with difficulty in modulating slipping kinematics and resorting to an increased aborted stepping strategy compared to non-paretic slip. These findings are suggestive of developing balance interventions for improving both compensatory non-paretic limb stepping and reactive control of slipping paretic limb for fall-risk reduction.

Can Smartphone-Derived Step Data Predict Laboratory-Induced Real-Life Like Fall-Risk in Community- Dwelling Older Adults?

Background: As age progresses, decline in physical function predisposes older adults to high fall-risk, especially on exposure to environmental perturbations such as slips and trips. However, there is limited evidence of association between daily community ambulation, an easily modifiable factor of physical activity (PA), and fall-risk. Smartphones, equipped with accelerometers, can quantify, and display daily ambulation-related PA simplistically in terms of number of steps. If any association between daily steps and fall-risks is established, smartphones due to its convenience and prevalence could provide health professionals with a meaningful outcome measure, in addition to existing clinical measurements, to identify older adults at high fall-risk. Objective: This study aimed to explore whether smartphone-derived step data during older adults' community ambulation alone or together with commonly used clinical fall-risk measurements could predict falls following laboratory-induced real-life like slips and trips. Relationship between step data and PA questionnaire and clinical fall-risk assessments were examined as well. Methods: Forty-nine community-dwelling older adults (age 60-90 years) completed Berg Balance Scale (BBS), Activities-specific Balance Confidence scale (ABC), Timed Up-and-Go (TUG), and Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE). One-week and 1-month smartphone steps data were retrieved. Participants' 1-year fall history was noted. All participants' fall outcomes to laboratory-induced slip-and-trip perturbations were recorded. Logistic regression was performed to identify a model that best predicts laboratory falls. Pearson correlations examined relationships between study variables. Results: A model including age, TUG, and fall history significantly predicted laboratory falls with a sensitivity of 94.3%, specificity of 58.3%, and an overall accuracy of 85.1%. Neither 1-week nor 1-month steps data could predict laboratory falls. One-month steps data significantly positively correlated with BBS (r = 0.386, p = 0.006) and ABC (r = 0.369, p = 0.012), and negatively correlated with fall history (r p = -0.293, p = 0.041). Conclusion: Older participants with fall history and higher TUG scores were more likely to fall in the laboratory. No association between smartphone steps data and laboratory fall-risk was established in our study population of healthy community-dwelling older adults which calls for further studies on varied populations. Although modest, results do reveal a relationship between steps data and functional balance deficits and fear of falls.

Slip-Fall Predictors in Community-Dwelling, Ambulatory Stroke Survivors: A Cross-sectional Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Considering the multifactorial nature and the often-grave consequences of falls in people with chronic stroke (PwCS), determining measurements that best predict fall risk is essential for identifying those who are at high risk. We aimed to determine measures from the domains of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) that can predict laboratory-induced slip-related fall risk among PwCS. METHODS: Fifty-six PwCS participated in the experiment in which they were subjected to an unannounced slip of the paretic leg while walking on an overground walkway. Prior to the slip, they were given a battery of tests to assess fall risk factors. Balance was assessed using performance-based tests and instrumented measures. Other fall risk factors assessed were severity of sensorimotor impairment, muscle strength, physical activity level, and psychosocial factors. Logistic regression analysis was performed for all variables. The accuracy of each measure was examined based on its sensitivity and specificity for fall risk prediction. RESULTS: Of the 56 participants, 24 (43%) fell upon slipping while 32 (57%) recovered their balance. The multivariate logistic regression analysis model identified dynamic gait stability, hip extensor strength, and the Timed Up and Go (TUG) score as significant laboratory-induced slip-fall predictors with a combined sensitivity of 75%, a specificity of 79.2%, and an overall accuracy of 77.3%. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that fall risk measures within the ICF domains-body, structure, and function (dynamic gait stability and hip extensor strength) and activity limitation (TUG)-could provide a sensitive laboratory-induced slip-fall prediction model in PwCS.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see the Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, available at: http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A323).