Unsaid thoughts: Thinking in the absence of verbal logical connectives.

Combining two thoughts into a compound mental representation is a central feature of our verbal and non-verbal logical abilities. We here approach this issue by focusing on the contingency that while natural languages have typically lexicalised only two of the possible 16 binary connectives from formal logic to express compound thoughts-namely, the coordinators and and or-some of the remainder appear to be entertainable in a non-verbal, conceptual representational system-a language of thought-and this suggests a theoretical split between the "lexicalisation" of the connectives and the "learnability" of invented words corresponding to unlexicalised connectives. In a visual world experiment aimed at tracking comprehension-related as well as reasoning-related aspects of the capacity to represent compound thoughts, we found that participants are capable of learning and interpreting a made-up word standing for logic's NAND operator, a result that indicates that unlexicalised logical connectives are not only conceptually available, but can also be mapped onto new function words, as in the case of coordinators, or connectives, a class of words that do not usually admit new coinages.

Parsing for Position.

Monitoring tasks have long been employed in psycholinguistics, and the end-of-clause effect is possibly the better-known result of using this technique in the study of parsing. Recent results with the tone-monitoring task suggest that tone position modulates cognitive load, as reflected in reaction times (RTs): the earlier the tone appears in a sentence, the longer the RTs. In this study, we show that verb position is also an important factor. In particular, changing the time/location at which verb-noun(s) dependencies are computed during the processing of a sentence has a clear effect on cognitive load and, as a result, on the resources that can be devoted to monitoring and responding to a tone. This study is based on two pieces of evidence. We first report the acceptability ratings of six word orders in Spanish and then present monitoring data with three of these different word orders. Our results suggest that RTs tend to be longer if the verb is yet to be processed, pointing to the centrality of a sentence's main verb in parsing in general.

Disentangling perceptual and psycholinguistic factors in syntactic processing: Tone monitoring via ERPs.

Franco, Gaillard, Cleeremans, and Destrebecqz (Behavior Research Methods, 47, 1393-1403, 2015), in a study on statistical learning employing the click-detection paradigm, conclude that more needs to be known about how this paradigm interacts with statistical learning and speech perception. Past results with this monitoring technique have pointed to an end-of-clause effect in parsing-a structural effect-but we here show that the issues are a bit more nuanced. Firstly, we report two Experiments (1a and 1b), which show that reaction times (RTs) are affected by two factors: (a) processing load, resulting in a tendency for RTs to decrease across a sentence, and (b) a perceptual effect which adds to this tendency and moreover helps neutralize differences between sentences with slightly different structures. These two factors are then successfully discriminated by registering event-related brain potentials (ERPs) during a monitoring task, with Experiment 2 establishing that the amplitudes of the N1 and P3 components-the first associated with temporal uncertainty, the second with processing load in dual tasks-correlate with RTs. Finally, Experiment 3 behaviorally segregates the two factors by placing the last tone at the end of sentences, activating a wrap-up operation and thereby both disrupting the decreasing tendency and highlighting structural effects. Our overall results suggest that much care needs to be employed in designing click-detection tasks if structural effects are sought, and some of the now-classic data need to be reconsidered.

Exploring the Effects of Visual Frame and Matching Direction on the Vertical-Horizontal Illusion.

The work presented here uses an adjustment method to test the vertical-horizontal illusion across four different configurations: a cross-shape, an L-shape, an inverted-T and a rotated-T. We examine the modulatory role of the variables visual frame and direction of the adjustment on the illusory effect. Two experiments were performed, one with rectangular and one with curvilinear visual frames. Our data show that in both experiments, the size of the expected illusion increases from the cross-shape to the L-shape and from the L-shape to the inverted-T, where it reaches its maximum. In the rotated-T, the illusion reverses reaching a significant effect in the opposite direction. This pattern of results appears consistently across different experimental conditions, although the variability in the amount of illusory effect seems to be modulated by the intervention of the two variables examined. A dissection of the vertical-horizontal illusion has been carried out in terms of a two-factor explanation - anisotropy and bisection - interacting in different ways across configurations.

La función ejecutiva en la esquizofrenia y su asociación con las habilidades cognitivas sociales (mentalistas) / Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and its association with mentalizing abilities

Introducción. En la esquizofrenia se han encontrado alteraciones en aspectos importantes de la cognición básica y social. El objetivo de este estudio es explorar la relación entre deficiencias en función ejecutiva (FE) y en teoría de la mente(TM) en pacientes que sufren esta enfermedad. Materiales y métodos. Veintidós pacientes de habla hispana y 22 controles emparejados a los primeros en edad, sexo, educación, lengua dominante y CI premórbido fueron evaluados en FE y capacidad de TM. Para evaluar las FE se utilizaron 10 tareas que abarcan 5 dimensiones cognitivas, mientras que, para evaluar la TM, se han usado 3 tareas distintas. Para explorar el grado de asociación entre habilidades ejecutivas y cognitivas sociales (mentalistas) se han empleado técnicas de análisis correlacional. A través del análisis discriminante, se ha examinado la contribución relativa de cada tarea ejecutiva y mentalista a la hora de discriminar entre pacientes y controles. Resultados. Los pacientes presentaron alteraciones tanto en su capacidad ejecutiva como cognitiva social. El análisis de correlación mostró una ausencia de asociación entre las FE y las habilidades de TM dentro del grupo de pacientes, mientras que el patrón fue más bien opuesto en el grupo control. El rendimiento en TM fue más preciso que el rendimiento ejecutivo para predecir a qué grupo pertenecían los participantes. Conclusiones. Aunque los déficits en FE y en TM aparecen conjuntamente en la esquizofrenia, ambos pertenecen a dominios cognitivos distintos y relativamente independientes (AU)

Introduction. Patients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition. Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness. Materials and methods. Twenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age, sex, education, language dominance, and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities. The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks. Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities. A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls. Results. Patients showed impairments in both, executive and ToM abilities. The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients, and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group. ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls. Conclusions. Although EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia, they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains (AU)

Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and its association with mentalizing abilities.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition. Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age, sex, education, language dominance, and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities. The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks. Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities. A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls. RESULTS: Patients showed impairments in both, executive and ToM abilities. The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients, and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group. ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls. CONCLUSIONS: Although EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia, they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains.

Masked and unmasked priming effects as a function of semantic relatedness and associative strength.

The study presented in this paper aimed to investigate the pattern of semantic priming effects, under masked and unmasked conditions, in the lexical decision task, manipulating type of semantic relation and associative strength. Three different kinds of word relations were examined in two experiments: only-semantically related words [e.g., codo (elbow)-rodilla (knee)] and semantic/associative related words with strong [e.g., mesa (table)-silla (chair) and weak association strength [e.g., sapo (toad)-rana (frog)]. In Experiment 1 a masked priming procedure was used with a prime duration of 56 ms, and in Experiment 2, the prime was presented unmasked for 150 ms. The results showed that there were masked priming effects with strong associates, but no evidence of these effects was found with weak associates or only-semantic related word pairs. When the prime was presented unmasked, the three types of relations produced significant priming effects and they were not influenced by association strength.

Masked and unmasked priming effects as a function of semantic relatedness and associative strength

The study presented in this paper aimed to investigate the pattern of semantic priming effects, under masked and unmasked conditions, in the lexical decision task, manipulating type of semantic relation and associative strength. Three different kinds of word relations were examined in two experiments: only-semantically related words [e.g., codo (elbow)-rodilla (knee)] and semantic/associative related words with strong [e.g., mesa (table)-silla (chair) and weak association strength [e.g., sapo (toad)-rana (frog)]. In Experiment 1 a masked priming procedure was used with a prime duration of 56 ms, and in Experiment 2, the prime was presented unmasked for 150 ms. The results showed that there were masked priming effects with strong associates, but no evidence of these effects was found with weak associates or only-semantic related word pairs. When the prime was presented unmasked, the three types of relations produced significant priming effects and they were not influenced by association strength (AU)

El presente estudio tenía como objetivo investigar el patrón de efectos de priming enmascarado y no enmascarado en la tarea de decisión léxica, manipulando el tipo de relación semántica y la fuerza asociativa entre prime y target. Se llevaron a cabo dos experimentos donde se examinaron tres tipos de relaciones: palabras relacionadas solo semánticamente [e.g., codo (elbow)-rodilla (knee)], palabras semánticamente relacionadas con una asociación fuerte [e.g., mesa (table)-silla (chair)] y palabras con una relación semántica asociativa débil [e.g., sapo (toad)-rana (frog)]. En el Experimento 1 se utilizó un procedimiento de priming enmascarado con una duración del prime de 57 ms, y en el Experimento 2, un procedimiento no enmascarado presentándose el prime durante 150 ms. Los resultados mostraron efectos de priming enmascarado significativos con pares de palabras que eran asociados fuertes pero no cuando eran asociados débiles o tenían una relación sólo semántica (no asociativa). Cuando el prime se presentaba en condiciones no enmascaradas, los tres tipos de relaciones produjeron efectos de priming significativos y no se vieron influidos por la fuerza asociativa (AU)

ERP Evidence for the Rapid Assignment of an (Appropriate) Antecedent to PRO.

Event-related brain potentials were recorded while subjects listened to sentences containing a controlled infinitival complement. Subject and object control items were used, both with 2 potential antecedents in the upper clause. Half of the sentences had a gender agreement violation between the null subject of the infinitival complement and an adjective predicated of it. The rapid detection of this anomaly would indicate that the parser had established the coreference relation between the null subject and an antecedent, and that the processor had rapidly consulted verb control information to select the proper antecedent of the null subject. The results showed that for both subject and object control items ungrammatical adjectives elicited a P600 effect. These data imply that the processor has coindexed the null subject with an antecedent, and that the antecedent has been selected on the basis of control information. These results are compatible with parsing models that emphasize the rapid influence of verb-specific information on sentence processing.

The on-line resolution of the sentence complement/relative clause ambiguity: evidence from Spanish.

Two self-paced reading experiments investigated syntactic ambiguity resolution in Spanish. The experiments examined the way in which Spanish subjects initially interpret sentences that are temporarily ambiguous between a sentence complement and a relative clause interpretation. Experiment 1 examined whether the sentence complement preference found in English is observed in Spanish speaking subjects. In Experiment 2, verbal mood was manipulated in order to study the influence of verb-specific information on sentence processing. Since subcategorization for a subjunctive complement clause is generally assumed to be a lexical property of some verbs, the manipulation of the mood of the embedded verb affords us an interesting and novel way to examine the influence of lexical information on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Experiment 1 showed that Spanish speakers initially interpret the ambiguous that-clause as a sentence complement. Experiment 2 showed that verb-specific information, in particular, the information that specificies that a verb subcategorizes for a subjunctive complement, is accessed and used rapidly and affects the ambiguity resolution process. The results are discussed in relation to current models of sentence processing.

On the representation of inflections and derivations: data from Spanish.

The four experiments reported in this paper were designed to determine to what extent words are lexically represented in terms of their morphological structure. The experiments are carried out in Spanish, a language with rich morphological resources, using a priming paradigm and a lexical decision task. In particular, they examined the pattern of priming effects in regular inflected words with gender and in derived words, in comparison to those produced by orthographically and semantically related words, by manipulating form similarity and semantic transparency. The results showed, on the one hand, that regular inflected words produced reliable facilitatory effects which are not driven just by form relatedness (Experiments 1 and 2). On the other hand, they showed that both transparent and nontransparent derived forms produced facilitatory effects distinct from purely orthographic and semantic effects (Experiments 3 and 4). In general, these findings suggest that morphological information is represented in the mental lexicon and may play a central role in the individuation and retrieval of lexical entries.

Perception of English intonation by English, Spanish, and Chinese listeners.

Native language affects the perception of segmental phonetic structure, of stress, and of semantic and pragmatic effects of intonation. Similarly, native language might influence the perception of similarities and differences among intonation contours. To test this hypothesis, a cross-language experiment was conducted. An English utterance was resynthesized with seven falling and four rising intonation contours. English, Iberian Spanish, and Chinese listeners then rated each pair of nonidentical stimuli for degree of difference. Multidimensional scaling of the results supported the hypothesis. The three groups of listeners produced statistically different perceptual configurations for the falling contours. All groups, however, perceptually separated the falling from the rising contours. This result suggested that the perception of intonation begins with the activation of universal auditory mechanisms that process the direction of relatively slow frequency modulations. A second experiment therefore employed frequency-modulated sine waves that duplicated the fundamental frequency contours of the speech stimuli. New groups of English, Spanish, and Chinese subjects yielded no cross-language differences between the perceptual configurations for these nonspeech stimuli. The perception of similarities and differences among intonation contours calls upon universal auditory mechanisms whose output is molded by experience with one's native language.