An Early and Robust Activation of Caspases Heads Cells for a Regulated Form of Necrotic-like Cell Death.

Apoptosis is triggered by the activation of caspases and characterized by chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation (type II nuclear morphology). Necrosis is depicted by a gain in cell volume (oncosis), swelling of organelles, plasma membrane leakage, and subsequent loss of intracellular contents. Although considered as different cell death entities, there is an overlap between apoptosis and necrosis. In this sense, mounting evidence suggests that both processes can be morphological expressions of a common biochemical network known as "apoptosis-necrosis continuum." To gain insight into the events driving the apoptosis-necrosis continuum, apoptotically proficient cells were screened facing several apoptotic inducers for the absence of type II apoptotic nuclear morphologies. Chelerythrine was selected for further studies based on its cytotoxicity and the lack of apoptotic nuclear alterations. Chelerythrine triggered an early plasma membrane leakage without condensed chromatin aggregates. Ultrastructural analysis revealed that chelerythrine-mediated cytotoxicity was compatible with a necrotic-like type of cell death. Biochemically, chelerythrine induced the activation of caspases. Moreover, the inhibition of caspases prevented chelerythrine-triggered necrotic-like cell death. Compared with staurosporine, chelerythrine induced stronger caspase activation detectable at earlier times. After using a battery of chemicals, we found that high concentrations of thiolic antioxidants fully prevented chelerythrine-driven caspase activation and necrotic-like cell death. Lower amounts of thiolic antioxidants partially prevented chelerythrine-mediated cytotoxicity and allowed cells to display type II apoptotic nuclear morphology correlating with a delay in caspase-3 activation. Altogether, these data support that an early and pronounced activation of caspases can drive cells to undergo a form of necrotic-like regulated cell death.

Caspase-activated DNase is necessary and sufficient for oligonucleosomal DNA breakdown, but not for chromatin disassembly during caspase-dependent apoptosis of LN-18 glioblastoma cells.

Caspase-dependent apoptosis is a controlled type of cell death characterized by oligonucleosomal DNA breakdown and major nuclear morphological alterations. Other kinds of cell death do not share these highly distinctive traits because caspase-activated DNase (DFF40/CAD) remains inactive. Here, we report that human glioblastoma multiforme-derived LN-18 cells do not hydrolyze DNA into oligonucleosomal fragments after apoptotic insult. Furthermore, their chromatin remains packaged into a single mass, with no signs of nuclear fragmentation. However, ultrastructural analysis reveals that nuclear disassembly occurs, although compacted chromatin does not localize into apoptotic nuclear bodies. Caspases become properly activated, and ICAD, the inhibitor of DFF40/CAD, is correctly processed. Using cell-free in vitro assays, we show that chromatin from isolated nuclei of LN-18 cells is suitable for hydrolysis into oligonuclesomal fragments by staurosporine-pretreated SH-SY5Y cytoplasms. However, staurosporine-pretreated LN-18 cytoplasms do not induce DNA laddering in isolated nuclei from either LN-18 or SH-SY5Y cells because LN-18 cells express lower amounts of DFF40/CAD. DFF40/CAD overexpression makes LN-18 cells fully competent to degrade their DNA into oligonucleosome-sized fragments, and yet they remain unable to arrange their chromatin into nuclear clumps after apoptotic insult. Indeed, isolated nuclei from LN-18 cells were resistant to undergoing apoptotic nuclear morphology in vitro. The use of LN-18 cells has uncovered a previously unsuspected cellular model, whereby a caspase-dependent chromatin package is DFF40/CAD-independent, and DFF40/CAD-mediated double-strand DNA fragmentation does not warrant the distribution of the chromatin into apoptotic nuclear bodies. The studies highlight a not-yet reported DFF40/CAD-independent mechanism driving conformational nuclear changes during caspase-dependent cell death.

Platelet-derived growth factor B induces senescence and transformation in normal human fibroblasts.

Normal cells enter a senescent state upon aberrant oncogenic signals and this response inhibits tumor initiation and progression. It is now well admitted that intracellular and membrane localized oncogenes can illicit oncogene induced senescence. However, the effect of mitogenic growth factor on cellular senescence is so far largely unknown. Here we show that normal human dermal fibroblasts display a complex response to Platelet derived growth factor B (PDGFB) expression. Indeed, PDGFB expression induces, in the same cell population, both senescence and cellular transformation. Remarkably both populations are sustained with passages suggesting that transformed cells eventually enter a senescent state. This senescence state is p53 dependent as inhibiting the p53 pathway blocks the ability of PDGFB to induce senescence and results in strong cellular transformation increase upon PDGFB expression. The relevance of these observations is supported by the fact that human dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, skin tumors arising from constitutive PDGFB production with little aggressiveness, also display some senescence hallmarks. Together these data support the view that PDGFB, a mitogenic growth factor, has a limited ability to induce senescence. We propose that this low level of senescence might decrease the transforming ability of this factor without totally abolishing it.

NF-κB activation fails to protect cells to TNFα-induced apoptosis in the absence of Bcl-xL, but not Mcl-1, Bcl-2 or Bcl-w.

TNFα can promote either cell survival or cell death. The activation of NF-κB plays a central role in cell survival while its inhibition makes TNFα-triggered cytotoxicity possible. Here, we report that the overexpression of a non-degradable mutant of the inhibitor of NF-κB (super-repressor (SR)-IκBα) sensitizes HeLa cells towards TNFα-induced apoptosis, involving caspases activation and cytocrome C release from the mitochondria. Interestingly, we describe that the specific knockdown of Bcl-xL, but not that of Bcl-2, Bcl-w or Mcl-1, renders cells sensitive to TNFα-induced apoptosis. This cytotoxic effect occurs without altering the activation of NF-κB. Then, the activation of the NF-κB pathway is not sufficient to protect Bcl-xL-downregulated cells from TNFα-induced cell death, meaning that TNFα is not able to promote cell survival in the absence of Bcl-xL. In addition, Bcl-xL silencing does not potentiate the cytotoxicity afforded by the cytokine in SR-IκBα-overexpressing cells. This indicates that TNFα-induced apoptosis in SR-IκBα-overexpressing cells relies on the protein levels of Bcl-xL. We have corroborated these findings using RD and DU-145 cells, which also become sensitive to TNFα-induced apoptosis after Bcl-xL knockdown despite that NF-κB remains activated. Altogether, our results point out that the impairment of the anti-apoptotic function of Bcl-xL should make cells sensitive towards external insults circumventing the TNFα-triggered NF-κB-mediated cytoprotective effect. Hence, the specific inhibition of Bcl-xL could be envisaged as a promising alternative strategy against NF-κB-dependent highly chemoresistant proliferative malignancies.

Chromatin collapse during caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death requires DNA fragmentation factor, 40-kDa subunit-/caspase-activated deoxyribonuclease-mediated 3'-OH single-strand DNA breaks.

Apoptotic nuclear morphology and oligonucleosomal double-strand DNA fragments (also known as DNA ladder) are considered the hallmarks of apoptotic cell death. From a classic point of view, these two processes occur concomitantly. Once activated, DNA fragmentation factor, 40-kDa subunit (DFF40)/caspase-activated DNase (CAD) endonuclease hydrolyzes the DNA into oligonucleosomal-size pieces, facilitating the chromatin package. However, the dogma that the apoptotic nuclear morphology depends on DNA fragmentation has been questioned. Here, we use different cellular models, including MEF CAD(-/-) cells, to unravel the mechanism by which DFF40/CAD influences chromatin condensation and nuclear collapse during apoptosis. Upon apoptotic insult, SK-N-AS cells display caspase-dependent apoptotic nuclear alterations in the absence of internucleosomal DNA degradation. The overexpression of a wild-type form of DFF40/CAD endonuclease, but not of different catalytic-null mutants, restores the cellular ability to degrade the chromatin into oligonucleosomal-length fragments. We show that apoptotic nuclear collapse requires a 3'-OH endonucleolytic activity even though the internucleosomal DNA degradation is impaired. Moreover, alkaline unwinding electrophoresis and In Situ End-Labeling (ISEL)/In Situ Nick Translation (ISNT) assays reveal that the apoptotic DNA damage observed in the DNA ladder-deficient SK-N-AS cells is characterized by the presence of single-strand nicks/breaks. Apoptotic single-strand breaks can be impaired by DFF40/CAD knockdown, abrogating nuclear collapse and disassembly. In conclusion, the highest order of chromatin compaction observed in the later steps of caspase-dependent apoptosis relies on DFF40/CAD-mediated DNA damage by generating 3'-OH ends in single-strand rather than double-strand DNA nicks/breaks.

Apoptotic DNA degradation into oligonucleosomal fragments, but not apoptotic nuclear morphology, relies on a cytosolic pool of DFF40/CAD endonuclease.

Apoptotic cell death is characterized by nuclear fragmentation and oligonucleosomal DNA degradation, mediated by the caspase-dependent specific activation of DFF40/CAD endonuclease. Here, we describe how, upon apoptotic stimuli, SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma-derived cells show apoptotic nuclear morphology without displaying concomitant internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. Cytotoxicity afforded after staurosporine treatment is comparable with that obtained in SH-SY5Y cells, which exhibit a complete apoptotic phenotype. SK-N-AS cell death is a caspase-dependent process that can be impaired by the pan-caspase inhibitor q-VD-OPh. The endogenous inhibitor of DFF40/CAD, ICAD, is correctly processed, and dff40/cad cDNA sequence does not reveal mutations altering its amino acid composition. Biochemical approaches show that both SH-SY5Y and SK-N-AS resting cells express comparable levels of DFF40/CAD. However, the endonuclease is poorly expressed in the cytosolic fraction of healthy SK-N-AS cells. Despite this differential subcellular distribution of DFF40/CAD, we find no differences in the subcellular localization of both pro-caspase-3 and ICAD between the analyzed cell lines. After staurosporine treatment, the preferential processing of ICAD in the cytosolic fraction allows the translocation of DFF40/CAD from this fraction to a chromatin-enriched one. Therefore, the low levels of cytosolic DFF40/CAD detected in SK-N-AS cells determine the absence of DNA laddering after staurosporine treatment. In these cells DFF40/CAD cytosolic levels can be restored by the overexpression of their own endonuclease, which is sufficient to make them proficient at degrading their chromatin into oligonucleosome-size fragments after staurosporine treatment. Altogether, the cytosolic levels of DFF40/CAD are determinants in achieving a complete apoptotic phenotype, including oligonucleosomal DNA degradation.