Understanding Marine Biodegradation of Bio-Based Oligoesters and Plasticizers.

The study reports the enzymatic synthesis of bio-based oligoesters and chemo-enzymatic processes for obtaining epoxidized bioplasticizers and biolubricants starting from cardoon seed oil. All of the molecules had MW below 1000 g mol-1 and were analyzed in terms of marine biodegradation. The data shed light on the effects of the chemical structure, chemical bond lability, thermal behavior, and water solubility on biodegradation. Moreover, the analysis of the biodegradation of the building blocks that constituted the different bio-based products allowed us to distinguish between different chemical and physicochemical factors. These hints are of major importance for the rational eco-design of new benign bio-based products. Overall, the high lability of ester bonds was confirmed, along with the negligible effect of the presence of epoxy rings on triglyceride structures. The biodegradation data clearly indicated that the monomers/building blocks undergo a much slower process of abiotic or biotic transformations, potentially leading to accumulation. Therefore, the simple analysis of the erosion, hydrolysis, or visual/chemical disappearance of the chemical products or plastic is not sufficient, but ecotoxicity studies on the effects of such small molecules are of major importance. The use of natural feedstocks, such as vegetable seed oils and their derivatives, allows the minimization of these risks, because microorganisms have evolved enzymes and metabolic pathways for processing such natural molecules.

Neuroprotective Properties of Cardoon Leaves Extracts against Neurodevelopmental Deficits in an In Vitro Model of Rett Syndrome Depend on the Extraction Method and Harvest Time.

This study investigates the bioactive properties of different extracts of cardoon leaves in rescuing neuronal development arrest in an in vitro model of Rett syndrome (RTT). Samples were obtained from plants harvested at different maturity stages and extracted with two different methodologies, namely Naviglio® and supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2). While scCO2 extracts more hydrophobic fractions, the Naviglio® method extracts phenolic compounds and less hydrophobic components. Only the scCO2 cardoon leaves extract obtained from plants harvested in spring induced a significant rescue of neuronal atrophy in RTT neurons, while the scCO2 extract from the autumn harvest stimulated dendrite outgrowth in Wild-Type (WT) neurons. The scCO2 extracts were the richest in squalene, 3ß-taraxerol and lupeol, with concentrations in autumn harvest doubling those in spring harvest. The Naviglio® extract was rich in cynaropicrin and exerted a toxic effect at 20 µM on both WT and RTT neurons. When cynaropicrin, squalene, lupeol and 3ß-taraxerol were tested individually, no positive effect was observed, whereas a significant neurotoxicity of cynaropicrin and lupeol was evident. In conclusion, cardoon leaves extracts with high content of hydrophobic bioactive molecules and low cynaropicrin and lupeol concentrations have pharmacological potential to stimulate neuronal development in RTT and WT neurons in vitro.

2,5-Furandicarboxaldehyde as a bio-based crosslinking agent replacing glutaraldehyde for covalent enzyme immobilization.

In the quest for a bio-based and safer substitute for glutaraldehyde, we have investigated 2,5 diformylfuran (DFF) as bifunctional crosslinking agent for the covalent immobilization of glucoamylase on amino-functionalized methacrylic resins. Immobilization experiments and systematic comparison with glutaraldehyde at four different concentrations for the activation step showed that DFF leads to comparable enzymatic activities at all tested concentrations. Continuous flow experiment confirms a similar long term stability of the immobilized formulations obtained with the two crosslinkers. The NMR study of DFF in aqueous solution evidenced a much simpler behaviour as compared to glutaraldehyde, since no enolic forms can form and only a mono-hydrated form was observed. Unlike in the case of glutaraldehyde, DFF reacts covalently with the primary amino groups via imine bond formation only. Nevertheless, the stability of the covalent immobilization was confirmed also at acidic pH (4.5), most probably because of the higher stability of the imine bonds formed with the aromatic aldehydes. In terms of toxicity DFF has the advantage of being poorly soluble in water and, more importantly, poorly volatile as compared to glutaraldehyde, which displays severe respiratory toxicity. We have performed preliminary ecotoxicity assays using Aliivibrio fischeri, a marine bacterium, evidencing comparable behaviour (below the toxicity threshold) for both dialdehydes at the tested concentrations.

Rational Guidelines for the Two-Step Scalability of Enzymatic Polycondensation: Experimental and Computational Optimization of the Enzymatic Synthesis of Poly(glycerolazelate).

The lipase-catalyzed polycondensation of azelaic acid and glycerol is investigated according to a Design-of-Experiment approach that helps to elucidate the effect of experimental variables on monomer conversion, Mn and regioselectivity of acylation of glycerol. Chemometric analysis shows that after 24 h the reaction proceeds regardless of the presence of the enzyme. Accordingly, the biocatalyst was removed after a first step of synthesis and the chain elongation continued at 80 °C. That allowed the removal of the biocatalyst and the preservation of its activity: pre-requites for efficient applicability at industrial scale. The experimental study, combined with docking-based computational analysis, provides rational guidelines for the optimization of the regioselective acylation of glycerol. The process is scaled up to 73.5 g of monomer. The novelty of the present study is the rigorous control of the reaction conditions and of the integrity of the immobilized biocatalyst, which serve to avoiding any interference of free enzyme or fines released in the reaction mixture. The quantitative analysis of the effect of experimental conditions and the overcoming of some major technical bottlenecks for the scalability of enzymatic polycondensation opens new scenarios for industrial exploitation.

Azelaic Acid: A Bio-Based Building Block for Biodegradable Polymers.

Azelaic acid is a dicarboxylic acid containing nine C atoms, industrially obtained from oleic acid. Besides its important properties and pharmacological applications, as an individual compound, azelaic acid has proved to be a valuable bio-based monomer for the synthesis of biodegradable and sustainable polymers, plasticizers and lubricants. This review discusses the studies and the state of the art in the field of the production of azelaic acid from oleic acid, the chemical and enzymatic synthesis of bio-based oligo and polyester and their properties, including biodegradability and biocompostability.

Renewable polymers and plastics: Performance beyond the green.

Renewable bio-based polymers are one of the effective answers that the bioeconomy offers to solve the environmental emergency connected to plastics and more specifically fossil-based plastics. Previous studies have shown that more than 70 % of the natural capital cost associated with plastic derives from the extraction and processing of fossil raw materials and that the price of fossil plastic would be on average 44 % higher if such impact was fully paid by businesses. The disclosure of the hidden costs of plastics will contribute to dispelling the myth of the expensiveness of renewable polymers. Nevertheless, the adoption of bio-based plastics in the market must be motivated by their functional properties and not merely by their green credentials. This article highlights some successful examples of synergies between chemistry and biotechnology in achieving a new generation of bio-based monomers and polymers. Their success is justified by the combination of scientific advances with positive environmental and social fallouts.

The bioeconomy in Italy and the new national strategy for a more competitive and sustainable country.

Italy has the third largest bioeconomy in Europe (€330 billion annual turnover, 2 million employees), making it a core pillar of the national economy. Its sectors of excellence are food and biobased products, and it is a consistent presence in research and innovation projects funded by the EU Horizon 2020 programme (Societal Challenges 2) and the European Public Private Partnership "Biobased industry" (BBI-JU). The bioeconomy reduces dependence on fossil fuels and finite materials, loss of biodiversity and changing land use. It contributes to environmental regeneration, spurs economic growth and supports jobs in rural, coastal and abandoned industrial areas, leveraging local contexts and traditions. In 2017 the Italian government promoted the development of a national Bioeconomy Strategy (BIT), recently updated (BIT II) to interconnect more efficiently the pillars of the national bioeconomy: production of renewable biological resources, their conversion into valuable food/feed, biobased products and bio-energy, and transformation and valorization of bio-waste streams. BIT II aims to improve coordination between Ministries and Italian regions in alignment of policies, regulations, R&I funding programmes and infrastructures investment. The goal is a 15 % increase in turnover and employment in the Italian bioeconomy by 2030. Based on Italy's strategic geopolitical position in the Mediterranean basin, BIT II also includes actions to improve sustainable productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the implementation of bioeconomy strategies in this area. This paper provides an insight into these strategies and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the sectors involved and the measures, regulatory initiatives and monitoring actions undertaken.

Thermal Upgrade of Enzymatically Synthesized Aliphatic and Aromatic Oligoesters.

The enzymatic synthesis of polyesters in solventless systems is an environmentally friendly and sustainable method for synthetizing bio-derived materials. Despite the greenness of the technique, in most cases only short oligoesters are obtained, with limited practical applications or requiring further chemical processing for their elongation. In this work, we present a catalyst-free thermal upgrade of enzymatically synthesized oligoesters. Different aliphatic and aromatic oligoesters were synthesized using immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B (iCaLB) as the catalyst (70 °C, 24 h) yielding poly(1,4-butylene adipate) (PBA, Mw = 2200), poly(1,4-butylene isophthalate) (PBI, Mw = 1000), poly(1,4-butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PBF, Mw = 600), and poly(1,4-butylene 2,4-pyridinedicarboxylate) (PBP, Mw = 1000). These polyesters were successfully thermally treated to obtain an increase in Mw of 8.5, 2.6, 3.3, and 2.7 folds, respectively. This investigation focused on the most successful upgrade, poly(1,4-butylene adipate), then discussed the possible effect of di-ester monomers as compared to di-acids in the thermally driven polycondensation. The herein-described two-step synthesis method represents a practical and cost-effective way to synthesize higher-molecular-weight polymers without the use of toxic metal catalysts such as titanium(IV) tert-butoxide, tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate, and in particular, antimony(IV) oxide. At the same time, the method allows for the extension of the number of reuses of the biocatalyst by preventing its exposure to extreme denaturating conditions.

Integrating computational and experimental methods for efficient biocatalytic synthesis of polyesters.

The research on biocatalyzed polycondensation has delivered an array of polyesters having molecular weights below 20,000gmol-1 but characterized by controlled structures and desired functionalities. Their unique catalytic efficiency under mild conditions enables enzymes to catalyze the polycondensation of monomers bearing labile lateral moieties that can be easily accessed via post-polymerization modifications. Despite this great potential, nowadays biocatalysts are not employed for polycondensation on industrial scale due to some bottlenecks related to the formulation of biocatalysts and the process configuration, which make the enzymatic technology non-economic. Recycling the enzymatic catalysts is not only a matter of producing an active and robust formulation, but it also requires the optimal integration of such biocatalyst within a specific reactor and process configuration that must enable efficient mass-transfer while preserving the integrity of the enzymatic preparation. In this chapter, we describe examples of integrated experimental-computational approaches for the rational planning and implementation of enzymatic polycondensation using lipase B from Candida antarctica and cutinase 1 from Thermobifida cellulosilytica. They rely on molecular visualization, molecular modeling and chemometrics, which are methods requiring very modest computational power and approachable by operators who do not have specific computational background. The examples also address the sustainability issue, by describing solvent-free processes involving bio-based monomers and biocatalysts immobilized on renewable carriers.

Navigating within thiamine diphosphate-dependent decarboxylases: Sequences, structures, functional positions, and binding sites.

Thiamine diphosphate-dependent decarboxylases catalyze both cleavage and formation of CC bonds in various reactions, which have been assigned to different homologous sequence families. This work compares 53 ThDP-dependent decarboxylases with known crystal structures. Both sequence and structural information were analyzed synergistically and data were analyzed for global and local properties by means of statistical approaches (principle component analysis and principal coordinate analysis) enabling complexity reduction. The different results obtained both locally and globally, that is, individual positions compared with the overall protein sequence or structure, revealed challenges in the assignment of separated homologous families. The methods applied herein support the comparison of enzyme families and the identification of functionally relevant positions. The findings for the family of ThDP-dependent decarboxylases underline that global sequence identity alone is not sufficient to distinguish enzyme function. Instead, local sequence similarity, defined by comparisons of structurally equivalent positions, allows for a better navigation within several groups of homologous enzymes. The differentiation between homologous sequences is further enhanced by taking structural information into account, such as BioGPS analysis of the active site properties or pairwise structural superimpositions. The methods applied herein are expected to be transferrable to other enzyme families, to facilitate family assignments for homologous protein sequences.

Evolving biocatalysis to meet bioeconomy challenges and opportunities.

The unique selectivity of enzymes, along with their remarkable catalytic activity, constitute powerful tools for transforming renewable feedstock and also for adding value to an array of building blocks and monomers produced by the emerging bio-based chemistry sector. Although some relevant biotransformations run at the ton scale demonstrate the success of biocatalysis in industry, there is still a huge untapped potential of catalytic activities available for targeted valorization of new raw materials, such as waste streams and CO2. For decades, the needs of the pharmaceutical and fine chemistry sectors have driven scientific research in the field of biocatalysis. Nowadays, such consolidated advances have the potential to translate into effective innovation for the benefit of bio-based chemistry. However, the new scenario of bioeconomy requires a stringent integration between scientific advances and economics, and environmental as well as technological constraints. Computational methods and tools for effective big-data analysis are expected to boost the use of enzymes for the transformation of a new array of renewable feedstock and, ultimately, to enlarge the scope of biocatalysis.

The Closure of the Cycle: Enzymatic Synthesis and Functionalization of Bio-Based Polyesters.

The polymer industry is under pressure to mitigate the environmental cost of petrol-based plastics. Biotechnologies contribute to the gradual replacement of petrol-based chemistry and the development of new renewable products, leading to the closure of carbon circle. An array of bio-based building blocks is already available on an industrial scale and is boosting the development of new generations of sustainable and functionally competitive polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA). Biocatalysts add higher value to bio-based polymers by catalyzing not only their selective modification, but also their synthesis under mild and controlled conditions. The ultimate aim is the introduction of chemical functionalities on the surface of the polymer while retaining its bulk properties, thus enlarging the spectrum of advanced applications.

Exploring mild enzymatic sustainable routes for the synthesis of bio-degradable aromatic-aliphatic oligoesters.

The application of Candida antarctica lipase B in enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of aromatic-aliphatic oligoesters is here reported. The aim of the present study is to systematically investigate the most favorable conditions for the enzyme catalyzed synthesis of aromatic-aliphatic oligomers using commercially available monomers. Reaction conditions and enzyme selectivity for polymerization of various commercially available monomers were considered using different inactivated/activated aromatic monomers combined with linear polyols ranging from C2 to C12 . The effect of various reaction solvents in enzymatic polymerization was assessed and toluene allowed to achieve the highest conversions for the reaction of dimethyl isophthalate with 1,4-butanediol and with 1,10-decanediol (88 and 87% monomer conversion respectively). Mw as high as 1512 Da was obtained from the reaction of dimethyl isophthalate with 1,10-decanediol. The obtained oligomers have potential applications as raw materials in personal and home care formulations, for the production of aliphatic-aromatic block co-polymers or can be further functionalized with various moieties for a subsequent photo- or radical polymerization.

Investigating the Role of Conformational Effects on Laccase Stability and Hyperactivation under Stress Conditions.

Fungal laccase from Steccherinum ochraceum 1833 displays remarkable stability under different harsh conditions: organic/buffer mixtures, thermal treatment, and microwave radiation. The behavior is particularly significant in the light of the sharp inactivation observed for two different fungal laccases. Laccase from S. ochraceum 1833 also displays hyperactivation under mild thermal treatment (60 °C). Molecular dynamics simulations at 80 °C explained how this laccase retains the geometry of the electron transfer pathway, thereby assuring electron transfer through the copper ions and thus maintaining its catalytic activity at high temperature. Spectroscopic studies revealed that the thermal activation corresponds to specific conformational changes in the protein. The results indicate that this laccase is potentially applicable under denaturing conditions that might be beneficial for the biotransformation of recalcitrant substrates.

BioGPS descriptors for rational engineering of enzyme promiscuity and structure based bioinformatic analysis.

A new bioinformatic methodology was developed founded on the Unsupervised Pattern Cognition Analysis of GRID-based BioGPS descriptors (Global Positioning System in Biological Space). The procedure relies entirely on three-dimensional structure analysis of enzymes and does not stem from sequence or structure alignment. The BioGPS descriptors account for chemical, geometrical and physical-chemical features of enzymes and are able to describe comprehensively the active site of enzymes in terms of "pre-organized environment" able to stabilize the transition state of a given reaction. The efficiency of this new bioinformatic strategy was demonstrated by the consistent clustering of four different Ser hydrolases classes, which are characterized by the same active site organization but able to catalyze different reactions. The method was validated by considering, as a case study, the engineering of amidase activity into the scaffold of a lipase. The BioGPS tool predicted correctly the properties of lipase variants, as demonstrated by the projection of mutants inside the BioGPS "roadmap".

Toward a unified biological hypothesis for the BDNF Val66Met-associated memory deficits in humans: a model of impaired dendritic mRNA trafficking.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) represents promotesa key molecule for the survival and differentiation of specific populations of neurons in the central nervous system. BDNF also regulates plasticity-related processes underlying memory and learning. A common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs6265 has been identified on the coding sequence of human BDNF located at 11p13. The SNP rs6265 is a single base mutation with an adenine instead of a guanine at position 196 (G196A), resulting in the amino acid substitution Val66Met. This polymorphism only exists in humans and has been associated with a plethora of effects ranging from molecular, cellular and brain structural modifications in association with deficits in social and cognitive functions. To date, the literature on Val66Met polymorphism describes a complex and often conflicting pattern of effects. In this review, we attempt to provide a unifying model of the Val66Met effects. We discuss the clinical evidence of the association between Val66Met and memory deficits, as well as the molecular mechanisms involved including the reduced transport of BDNF mRNA to the dendrites as well as the reduced processing and secretion of BDNF protein through the regulated secretory pathway.

Efficient immobilisation of industrial biocatalysts: criteria and constraints for the selection of organic polymeric carriers and immobilisation methods.

Efficient immobilisation protocols are the result of perfect matching of factors depending on the enzyme, the process and the support for immobilisation. Physical-chemical phenomena, such as partition, solvation and diffusion, strongly affect the efficiency of the biocatalyst in each specific reaction system. Therefore, tailored solutions must be developed for each specific process of interest. Indeed, direct investigation of what occurs at the molecular level in a reaction catalysed by an immobilised enzyme is a quite formidable task and observed differences in the performance of immobilised biocatalysts must be interpreted very carefully. In any study dealing with enzyme immobilisation the prerequisite is the rigorous planning and reporting of experiments, being aware of the complexity of these multi-phase systems.

Lipases immobilization for effective synthesis of biodiesel starting from coffee waste oils.

Immobilized lipases were applied to the enzymatic conversion of oils from spent coffee ground into biodiesel. Two lipases were selected for the study because of their conformational behavior analysed by Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations taking into account that immobilization conditions affect conformational behavior of the lipases and ultimately, their efficiency upon immobilization. The enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel was initially carried out on a model substrate (triolein) in order to select the most promising immobilized biocatalysts. The results indicate that oils can be converted quantitatively within hours. The role of the nature of the immobilization support emerged as a key factor affecting reaction rate, most probably because of partition and mass transfer barriers occurring with hydrophilic solid supports. Finally, oil from spent coffee ground was transformed into biodiesel with yields ranging from 55% to 72%. The synthesis is of particular interest in the perspective of developing sustainable processes for the production of bio-fuels from food wastes and renewable materials. The enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel is carried out under mild conditions, with stoichiometric amounts of substrates (oil and methanol) and the removal of free fatty acids is not required.

Fructose production by inulinase covalently immobilized on sepabeads in batch and fluidized bed bioreactor.

The present work is an experimental study of the performance of a recently designed immobilized enzyme: inulinase from Aspergillus sp. covalently immobilized on Sepabeads. The aim of the work is to test the new biocatalyst in conditions of industrial interest and to assess the feasibility of the process in a fluidized bed bioreactor (FBBR). The catalyst was first tested in a batch reactor at standard conditions and in various sets of conditions of interest for the process. Once the response of the catalyst to different operating conditions was tested and the operational stability assessed, one of the sets of conditions tested in batch was chosen for tests in FBBR. Prior to reaction tests, preliminary fluidization tests were realized in order to define an operating range of admissible flow rates. As a result, the FBR was run at different feed flow rates in a closed cycle configuration and its performance was compared to that of the batch system. The FBBR proved to be performing and suitable for scale up to large fructose production.