Combined Liposome-Gold Nanoparticles from Honey: The Catalytic Effect of Cassyopea® Gold on the Thermal Isomerization of a Resonance-Activated Azobenzene.

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been synthesized directly inside liposomes using honey as a reducing agent. The obtained aggregates, named Cassyopea® Gold due to the method used for their preparation, show remarkable properties as reactors and carriers of the investigated AuNPs. A mean size of about 150 nm and negative surface charge of -46 mV were measured for Cassyopea® Gold through dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements, respectively. The formation of the investigated gold nanoparticles into Cassyopea® liposomes was spectroscopically confirmed by the presence of their typical absorption band at 516 nm. The catalytic activity of the combined liposome-AuNP nanocomposites was tested via the thermal cis-trans isomerization of resonance-activated 4-methoxyazobenzene (MeO-AB). The kinetic rate constants (kobs) determined at 25 °C in the AuNP aqueous solution and in the Cassyopea® Gold samples were one thousand times higher than the values obtained when performing MeO-AB cis-trans conversion in the presence of pure Cassyopea®. The results reported herein are unprecedented and point to the high versatility of Cassyopea® as a reactor and carrier of metal nanoparticles in chemical, biological, and technological applications.

Cyclocurcumin as Promising Bioactive Natural Compound: An Overview.

Although identical in molecular formula and weight, curcumin and cyclocurcumin show remarkable differences in their reactivity. Both are natural compounds isolated from the rhizome of turmeric, the former is involved in the diketo/keto-enol tautomerism through the bis-α,ß-unsaturated diketone unit according to the polarity of the solvent, while the latter could react by trans-cis isomerization due to the presence of the α,ß-unsaturated dihydropyranone moiety. Even if curcumin is generally considered responsible of the therapeutical properties of Curcuma longa L. due to its high content, cyclocurcumin has attracted great interest over the last several decades for its individual behavior and specific features as a bioactive compound. Cyclocurcumin has a hydrophobic nature characterized by fluorescence emission, solvatochromism, and the tendency to form spherical fluorescent aggregates in aqueous solution. Molecular docking analysis reveals the potentiality of cyclocurcumin as antioxidant, enzyme inhibitor, and antiviral agent. Promising biological activities are observed especially in the treatment of degenerative and cardiovascular diseases. Despite the versatility emerging from the data reported herein, the use of cyclocurcumin seems to remain limited in clinical applications mainly because of its low solubility and bioavailability.

Structure and Properties of Electrochemically Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles in Aqueous Solution by High-Resolution Techniques.

The aim of this work was to deeply investigate the structure and properties of electrochemically synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) through high-resolution techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Zeta Potential measurements, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Strong brightness, tendency to generate nanoclusters containing an odd number of atoms, and absence of the free silver ions in solution were observed. The research also highlighted that the chemical and physical properties of the AgNPs seemed to be related to their peculiar oxidative state as suggested by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) analyses. Finally, the MTT assay tested the low cytotoxicity of the investigated AgNPs.

Microwave-assisted simple synthesis of 2-anilinopyrimidines by the reaction of 2-chloro-4,6-dimethylpyrimidine with aniline derivatives.

A series of 2-anilinopyrimidines including novel derivatives has been obtained from 2-chloro-4,6-dimethylpyrimidine by aromatic nucleophilic substitution with differently substituted anilines under microwave conditions. The substituents had a significant impact on the course and efficiency of the reaction. The results reported herein demonstrate the efficacy of microwaves in the synthesis of the title heterocyclic compounds as compared to the results obtained with conventional heating. The 2-anilinopyrimidines described are of potential bioactivity.

Learning organic chemistry day by day: The best choice of the best pharmacy students.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: During over ten years of experience in teaching organic chemistry at the Department of Pharmacy we have tried to answer the following question: why do most students tend to take the exam one, two, or more years after the end of the course they have attended? Several reasons could justify this delay, but three seem to be the most common drawbacks for our students: a) time needed for the comprehension of the arguments; b) the number of mandatory exams to pass before organic chemistry; c) lack of a self-evaluation method. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING: To increase the number of students in the exam sessions of the semester just after the course we have proposed two strategies: 1) a systematic, but stressless, approach by which homework and everyday life examples concerning organic chemistry are used to increase the sense of responsibility in studying; 2) the modification of the number of mandatory exams required for organic chemistry. FINDINGS: The rate of successful students in the exam sessions at the end of the course increased from 38.3 up to 61.3%. Interestingly, the highest scores tend to be obtained by students in the first session available just after the conclusion of the course. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY: The combined effect of Strategy 1 and Strategy 2 seems to be effective in promoting the learning of organic chemistry and points out that the best performances tend to be associated with students which follow organized studying.

The Compounds Responsible for the Sensory Profile in Monovarietal Virgin Olive Oils.

Monovarietal virgin olive oils (VOOs) are very effective to study relationships among sensory attributes, the compounds responsible for flavour, and factors affecting them. The stimulation of the human sensory receptors by volatile and non-volatile compounds present in monovarietal virgin olive oils gives rise to the sensory attributes that describe their peculiar delicate and fragrant flavours. The formation of these compounds is briefly illustrated and the influence of the agronomic and technological factors that affect their concentrations in the oil is examined. The relationships between compounds responsible for the olive oil flavour and sensory attributes are discussed. Several approaches for the varietal differentiation of monovarietal virgin olive oils are also overviewed.

Liposomes entrapping ß-cyclodextrin/ibuprofen inclusion complex: Role of the host and the guest on the bilayer integrity and microviscosity.

Multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) from 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) were prepared by using the dehydration-rehydration method. The ß-cyclodextrin/Ibuprofen inclusion complex (ß-CD/Ibu) was formed and solubilised into the aqueous compartments of the investigated vesicles. The resulting POPC MLVs entrapping ß-CD/Ibu complex were essentially homogeneous in shape as demonstrated by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The liposomal stability was determined at 37.0±0.1°C by following the outflux rate of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF) at pH 7.40, while the membrane microviscosity was estimated by the ratio of the fluorescence intensities of pyrene in excimer and monomer state. The results presented herein confirm that interactions between POPC and ß-CD occur and suggest that associations between POPC and Ibuprofen are also involved in the properties of the investigated liposomes.

Dual targeting of cancer-related human matrix metalloproteinases and carbonic anhydrases by chiral N-(biarylsulfonyl)-phosphonic acids.

A series of nanomolar phosphonate matrix metalloproteinase (MPP) inhibitors was tested for inhibitory activity against a panel of selected human carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isozymes, covering the cancer-associated CA IX and XII. None of the reported sulfonyl and sulfonylamino-derivatives sensitively affected the catalytic activity of the cytosolic isoforms CA I and II, which are considered off-target isoforms in view of their physiological role. The most active inhibitors were in the series of chiral N-(sulfonyl)phosphovaline derivatives, which showed good to excellent inhibitory activity over target CAs, with compound 15 presenting the best isoform-selectivity toward CA IX. We suggest here that the phosphonates have the potential as dual inhibitors of MMPs and CAs, both involved in tumor formation, invasion and metastasis.

Kinetics and Energetics of Thermal Cis-Trans Isomerization of a Resonance-Activated Azobenzene in BMIM-Based Ionic Liquids for PF6-/Tf2N- Comparison.

BMIM PF6 (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate) and BMIM Tf2N (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide) are two conventional room-temperature ionic liquids widely employed and investigated as reaction media. Despite the presence of the same imidazolium ring in their structure they are different in many chemical and physical properties due to the nature of the anions. The thermal cis-trans isomerization of an electronically activated azobenzene have been used as reaction model to compare the behavior of PF6- and Tf2N-. Rotation is the mechanism by which the investigated azobenzene is converted into the trans isomer spontaneously in the dark both in BMIM PF6 and in BMIM Tf2N. The kinetic rate constants of the process have been determined at different temperatures and the activation energies of the reaction have been calculated according to the Arrhenius and Eyring equations. The results presented herein highlight different solute-solvent interactions involving the PF6- and Tf2N- anions during the cis-trans isomerization.

Preparation and Antiproliferative Activity of Liposomes Containing a Combination of Cisplatin and Procainamide Hydrochloride.

We have previously reported the enhancement of the antiproliferative and apoptotic activities of cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (DDP) when it is coadministered with a class I antiarrhythmic drug procainamide hydrochloride (PA). Here, we determined the antiproliferative activity of DDP, either in solution or loaded in liposomes, in the presence of PA, in the bulk solution, or directly embedded in liposomes together with DDP. Our results show that PA potentiates the activity of DDP-liposomes and that this effect is maintained at least in some of the investigated cell types when both drugs were mixed and loaded together into liposomes.

Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Highly Viscous Media: A Comparison between the Dispersive Agents [BMIM][BF4 ], L121, and Triton X-100.

Dispersions of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have been prepared by using the room-temperature ionic liquid [BMIM][BF4 ] (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate), the triblock copolymer Pluronic L121 [poly(ethylene oxide)5 -poly(propylene oxide)68 -poly(ethylene oxide)5 ] and the non-ionic surfactant Triton X-100 (TX100) in the pure state. The size of the SWNTs aggregates and the dispersion degree in the three viscous systems depend on the sonication time, as highlighted by UV/Vis/NIR spectroscopy and optical microscopy analysis. A nonlinear increase in conductivity can be observed as a function of the SWNTs loading, as suggested by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The generation of a three-dimensional network of SWNTs showing a viscoelastic gel-like behavior above a critical percolation concentration has been found at 25 °C in all the investigated systems by oscillatory rheology measurements.

Role of Solvent and Effect of Substituent on Azobenzene Isomerization by Using Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids as Reaction Media.

The effects of a para substituent, as the electron-donating -OCH3 and -OtBu groups and the electron-withdrawing -Br and -F atoms, on azobenzene isomerization have been investigated in a series of imidazolium ionic liquids (BMIM PF6, BMIM BF4, BMIM Tf2N, EMIM Tf2N, BM2IM Tf2N, and HMIM Tf2N). The thermal cis-trans conversion tends to be improved in the presence of the substituent, as pointed out by the first-order rate constants measured at 25 °C. Both the rotation and the inversion mechanisms occur in BMIM Tf2N, EMIM Tf2N, and HMIM Tf2N, as highlighted by typical V-shape Hammett plots, but only rotation takes place in BMIM PF6, BMIM BF4, and BM2IM Tf2N. The possible interactions between the cation and the anion of the solvent and both the isomers of the azobenzene derivatives have been studied by small-wide-angle X-ray scattering (SWAXS). The calculated cis population in the photostationary state and the hardness parameter η of the trans isomer show that azobenzene and F-azobenzene are the less reactive molecules for the trans-cis conversion in all the investigated ionic liquids.

Polymeric Aggregates in Ionic Liquids: The Green Future of the Delivery Systems.

The self-assembly of a series of triblock co polymers Pluronics (P85, P105 and L121) has been investigated in some ionic liquids (BMIMBF4, BMIMPF6 and BMIMTf2N) by using Near-Infrared spectroscopy. The formation of supramolecular s tructures has been confirmed by optical microscopy. The solvation degree and the aggregation behaviour of P85, P105 and L121 depend on the interactions between the imidazolium ring of the ionic liquid and the hydrophilic moiety of the copolymer. Fluorescent vesicles can be observed after the incorporation of Nile Red into the polymeric bilayer of L121 or by linking fluorescein isothiocyanate to the copolymer structure.

Neutral liposomes containing crown ether-lipids as potential DNA vectors.

Three crown ether derivatives, 1,2-O-dioleoyl-3-O-{2-[(12-crown-4)methoxy]ethyl}-sn-glycerol (12C4L), 1,2-O-dioleoyl-3-O-{2-[(15-crown-5)methoxy]ethyl}-sn-glycerol (15C5L) and 2,3-naphtho-15-crown-5 (NAP5), have been incorporated into 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-phosphatydilcholine (POPC) liposomes. The size of the crown ether and the lipophilic moiety of 12C4L, 15C5L and NAP5 influence the stability and the properties of the extruded POPC liposomes determined at 25°C in buffered aqueous solution at pH7.4. The investigated liposomes are zwitterionic for POPC headgroups but can be turned into cationic aggregates in the presence of divalent cations. The capability of these systems to complex DNA has been demonstrated by SAXS experiments.

Effect of ring size on the tautomerization and ionization reaction of cyclic 2-nitroalkanones: an experimental and theoretical study.

The keto-enol tautomerism of some cyclic 2-nitroalkanones was studied in cyclohexane. Keto-enol equilibrium constants, K(T), at 25 °C were obtained from (1)H NMR spectra. The relative enol content for the investigated ketones as a function of ring size decreases in the order 6 > 7 > 11 > 12 > 15. This trend apparently is different from that observed in water. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations have been performed to rationalize the effects of ring size and of the solvent on tautomerism. The acidity constants, K(a)(KH), for the different keto tautomers were measured spectrophotometrically at 25 °C in buffered aqueous solutions. No simple correlations between K(a)(KH) and ring size was observed, and this is in agreement with a DFT analysis performed on the same compounds.

Kinetics of demetallation of a zinc-salophen complex into liposomes.

A Zn-salophen complex has been incorporated into POPC large unilamellar liposomes (LUV) obtained in phosphate buffer at pH 7.4. Fluorescence optical microscopy and anisotropy measurements show that the complex is located at the liposomal surface, close to the polar headgroups. The interaction of the POPC phosphate group with Zn(2+) slowly leads to demetallation of the complex. The process follows first order kinetics and rate constants have been measured fluorimetrically in pure water and in buffered aqueous solution. The coordination of the phosphate group of monomeric POPC with salophen zinc also occurs in chloroform as detected by ESI-MS measurements. The effect of the Zn-salophen complex on the stability of POPC LUV has been evaluated at 25°C by measuring the rate of release of entrapped 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF) in the presence and in the absence of Triton X-100 as the perturbing agent. It turns out that the inclusion of the complex significantly increases the stability of POPC LUV.

Characterization of cationic liposomes. Influence of the bilayer composition on the kinetics of the liposome breakdown.

The cationic large unilamellar mixed liposomes from 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (POPC) and didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) or dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB) were prepared. The influence of the addition of Triton X-100 (TX-100) or octaethylene glycol mono-n-dodecylether (C(12)E(8)) on the membrane integrity was investigated turbidimetrically. The stability of the liposomal systems was estimated by monitoring fluorimetrically at 25 °C the rate of spontaneous and surfactant-induced release of entrapped 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF). In order to evaluate the interaction of the cationic DODAB guest with the host POPC membrane, the main phase transition temperatures (T(m)) were determined by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR). All the results obtained show that the presence of DODAB and DDAB stabilizes the POPC liposomes. The extent of stabilization depends on the concentration and nature of the cationic guest.

Synthesis and aggregation behaviour of a new sultaine surfactant.

The aggregation properties of a new sultaine surfactant have been studied in buffered aqueous solution at pH 7.4 under controlled condition of osmolarity. Spontaneously formed sultaine vesicles with a mean diameter of about 1 µm can be observed by optical microscopy. The phase behaviour of the surfactant has been investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Nile Red fluorescence. Two critical vesicular concentrations (CVC(1) and CVC(2)) have been fluorimetrically measured, by using pyrene and Nile Red as the fluorescent probes. The two populations of vesicles behave differently as a consequence of their size. The stability of extruded large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) formed slightly above the CVC(1) has been evaluated in the temperature range 25-75°C by following the rate of spontaneous release of entrapped 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (CF). The stability of the same vesicles at 70°C has also been investigated under osmotic stress obtained by adding NaCl or sucrose to the bulk solution. At a sultaine concentration above the CVC(2) LUV tend to associate and form stable larger closely packed aggregates as suggested by Dynamic Laser Light Scattering and rheological measurements.

Use of simple kinetic and reaction-order measurements for the evaluation of the mechanism of surfactant-liposome interactions.

Surfactant-liposome interactions have been previously studied through different methods and techniques. We present here a classical physical chemistry study on liposome solutions added to destabilizing agents at concentrations well above the solubilization concentration, which enable us to draw useful and interesting conclusions about the mechanism of surfactant-induced liposomal breakdown by simply exploiting the kinetics and the reaction order of the liposomal content release. In such excess of surfactant, the mechanism of surfactant-induced rupture of the liposomes has been demonstrated to be different from that proposed for low surfactant concentrations. Thus, depending on the surfactant concentration, two prevailing processes have been evidenced: (i) a cooperative mechanism that implies the assembly of a critical number of surfactant molecules to trigger the formation of a channel and therefore the release of the liposomal content and (ii) a mechanism driven by direct interaction of the surfactant molecules with the lipids that causes the complete solubilization of the liposomes. The former mechanism occurs at low surfactant concentrations, whereas the latter occurs at higher concentrations and above the CMC of the surfactants. The effect of different guests embedded into the liposomal bilayer on the mechanism of surfactant-induced liposomal breakdown has been compared by using the second-order rate constants measured for the liposome breakdown process.

Strategies for improving the water solubility of new antitumour nitronaphthylbutadiene derivatives.

Different nitronaphthylbutadienes have been previously proved to have antitumour activity. The main drawback of these derivatives is their low water solubility. With the aim of facilitating the administration of these new drugs we have synthesized the hexyl (2Z,4E)-2-methylsulfanyl-5-(1-naphthyl)-4-nitro-2,4-pentadienoate analogue (1-Naph-NHCB) which is demonstrated to be easily included into cyclodextrins and/or entrapped into liposomes. Its antitumour activity was revealed to be almost comparable with that of the previously studied methyl analogue ester (1-Naph-NMCB). On the other hand, in vitro studies with different cancer cell lines showed that the cytotoxic activity of both 1-Naph-NMCB and 1-Naph-NHCB were fully preserved and in some cases also enhanced when entrapped into liposomal carriers.