Process of care events in transplantation: effects on the cost of hospitalization.

Deviations in the processes of healthcare delivery that affect patient outcomes are recognized to have an impact on the cost of hospitalization. Whether deviations that do not affect patient outcome affects cost has not been studied. We have analyzed process of care (POC) events that were reported in a large transplantation service (n = 3,012) in 2005, delineating whether or not there was a health consequence of the event and assessing the impact on hospital resource utilization. Propensity score matching was used to adjust for patient differences. The rate of POC events varied by transplanted organ: from 10.8 per 1000 patient days (kidney) to 17.3 (liver). The probability of a POC event increased with severity of illness. The majority (81.5%) of the POC events had no apparent effect on patients' health (63.6% no effect and 17.9% unknown). POC events were associated with longer length of stay (LOS) and higher costs independent of whether there was a patient health impact. Multiple events during the same hospitalization were associated with the highest impact on LOS and cost. POC events in transplantation occur frequently, more often in sicker patients and, although the majority of POC events do not harm the patient, their effect on resource utilization is significant.

Assessment of quality of life in adolescent patients with orthopaedic problems: are adult measures appropriate?

New pressures of accountability brought on by a rapidly evolving system of health care financing have underscored the need for standardized, valid measures of patient outcome that reflect the effect of clinical intervention on all aspects of quality of life. In response, there has been a burgeoning interest in the area of outcomes assessment and measurement of quality of life after orthopaedic intervention in adults, but less attention has been focused on the assessment of broadly defined outcomes in children. In an effort to borrow from the broader adult experience in this area, the authors sought to examine whether the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form 36 (SF-36) or the EuroQol questionnaire, widely accepted adult health status measures, would be valid in this setting. These two measures were administered to 196 adolescent patients (10-18 years old) seeking orthopaedic evaluation. Tests of scale properties and construct validity show that these properties are maintained in this population, but neither instrument reflected known differences in health status among this cohort. Most importantly, both the SF-36 and the EuroQol exhibited serious ceiling effects (most respondents scored at the top of their scales), despite evidence indicating those patients often had suboptimal health status. Thus, neither the SF-36 nor the EuroQol is valid for use in this population. The assessment of pediatric health status demands outcomes measures specifically designed to reflect the unique needs of this population.

Capturing quality of life in pediatric orthopaedics: two recent measures compared.

There is a clear need for standardized measures to assess health status that are valid and appropriate to the needs of children with orthopaedic problems. The Child Health Questionnaire and the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Pediatric Outcomes Data Collection Instrument, two new pediatric health status measures, were assessed for their ability to detect differences in health states in a pediatric orthopaedic population. The instruments have a range of scales designed to measure various aspects of physical and psychosocial health. Two hundred forty-two patients with wide-ranging diagnoses were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. The instruments exhibited ceiling effects in some domains but generally performed as they were intended in this large cohort. Using secondary factor analysis, it was shown that the domains of the instruments appropriately distinguish physical and psychosocial health. Several domains from each instrument discriminated between diagnosis groups and patients with varying numbers of comorbidities. Both of these measures show significant promise and have an important role in helping define the outcomes of children with orthopaedic problems.

The cost of long-term LVAD implantation.

BACKGROUND: With increasing use of left ventricular assist devices (LVAD) worldwide, the economics of LVAD implantation have become an important focus of concern. Although these devices have high unit costs, they are the only hope for survival for a large group of terminally ill patients and are likely to have an expansion in indications for use. METHODS: We calculated the costs associated with long-term LVAD implantation. We used the ratio of cost-to-charges method to calculate hospital costs per resource category, market prices for drugs and device, and payments for physician services. RESULTS: Based on our experience with "bridge-to-transplantation" patients, we estimated average first-year costs to be $222,460 including professional fees and $192,154 excluding professional fees. The latter figure is comparable to average first-year costs for cardiac transplantation, which is $176,605 without professional fees at our institution. CONCLUSIONS: The costs of LVAD therapy will change after the first year of implantation, and device reliability and longevity will be important factors in determining these costs. Should the costs of LVAD therapy continue to track those of cardiac transplantation, devices will be cost-effective only if they offer similar efficacy to cardiac transplantation.

Patient-based outcomes after clubfoot surgery.

Despite decades of experience in the area of clubfoot repair, considerable uncertainty remains regarding indications, surgical technique, and long-term results of treatment. Much of this uncertainty is due to the lack of a standardized and valid method for assessing postoperative outcomes of clubfoot repair. The current study used various end points to compare traditional and patient-based outcome measures and to develop a disease-specific instrument that is both meaningful to the patient and statistically valid. A cohort of 46 patients was identified, and several types of outcomes data were collected, including traditional end points of outcome (range of motion and radiographic criteria, qualitative patient-based data) and a previously validated instrument measuring pediatric functional status (FSIIr). At an average follow-up of 45 months, radiographic measures and range of motion were comparable to values published in previous studies. Postoperative functional status, as measured by the FSIIr, did not differ from that of age-matched controls. Psychometric analysis of these data allowed us to generate a 10-item disease-specific instrument (DSI), which conveyed patient-based attitudes toward outcome.

Long-term use of a left ventricular assist device for end-stage heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Implantable left ventricular assist devices have benefited patients with end-stage heart failure as a bridge to cardiac transplantation, but their long-term use for the purpose of enhancing survival and the quality of life has not been evaluated. METHODS: We randomly assigned 129 patients with end-stage heart failure who were ineligible for cardiac transplantation to receive a left ventricular assist device (68 patients) or optimal medical management (61). All patients had symptoms of New York Heart Association class IV heart failure. RESULTS: Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed a reduction of 48 percent in the risk of death from any cause in the group that received left ventricular assist devices as compared with the medical-therapy group (relative risk, 0.52; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.34 to 0.78; P=0.001). The rates of survival at one year were 52 percent in the device group and 25 percent in the medical-therapy group (P=0.002), and the rates at two years were 23 percent and 8 percent (P=0.09), respectively. The frequency of serious adverse events in the device group was 2.35 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.86 to 2.95) times that in the medical-therapy group, with a predominance of infection, bleeding, and malfunction of the device. The quality of life was significantly improved at one year in the device group. CONCLUSIONS: The use of a left ventricular assist device in patients with advanced heart failure resulted in a clinically meaningful survival benefit and an improved quality of life. A left ventricular assist device is an acceptable alternative therapy in selected patients who are not candidates for cardiac transplantation.

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome: valuing the survival.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the survival, developmental status, quality of life, and direct medical costs of children with hypoplastic left heart syndrome who have undergone stage I, II, and III reconstructive surgery. METHODS: A total of 106 children underwent staged repair for classic hypoplastic left heart syndrome between February 1990 and March 1999 (stage I: 106; stage II: 49; stage III: 25; 4 converted to heart transplantation). Survival was analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method. In a cross-sectional study, parents assessed quality of life by completing the Infant/Toddler Child Health Questionnaire or Child Health Questionnaire Parent Format-28; they assessed developmental progress by completing the Ages and Stages Questionnaire. The ratio-of-costs-to-charges method was used to derive hospital costs, and payments were used to capture physician time and wholesale pricing for outpatient medications. RESULTS: Institutional 1-year and 5-year actuarial survivals were 58% and 54%. Birth weight, the need for preoperative inotropic drugs, and surgical experience were predictors of survival. Norwood I patients achieved fewer developmental benchmarks than those who survived to subsequent stages. Child Health Questionnaire Parent Format-28 mean summary scores for physical and psychosocial health were 48.5 +/- 6.3 and 42.8 +/- 9.9. The median inpatient costs for stage I, II, and III repairs were $51,000, $33,892, and $52,183, respectively. Monthly outpatient and readmission costs were less than 10% of total costs. CONCLUSION: A prospective, large-scale study of the comprehensive outcomes of staged repair and transplantation is needed. This study will need to address the longer-term developmental and quality-of-life outcomes, as well as the long-term cost effectiveness of these procedures.

Geographic variations in the rates of operative procedures involving the shoulder, including total shoulder replacement, humeral head replacement, and rotator cuff repair.

BACKGROUND: Although geographic variations in the rates of orthopaedic procedures have been well documented, considerable controversy remains regarding the factors that drive these variations, particularly the role of the availability of orthopaedic surgeons. Moreover, little attention has been specifically focused on variations in the rates of commonly performed shoulder procedures. METHODS: The current study documents state-to-state variations in the rates of total shoulder replacement, humeral head replacement, and rotator cuff repair and examines factors that might account for these variations. The regional incidences of these three procedures were analyzed with use of the Health Care Financing Administration Medicare database (MEDPAR, 1992). The rates were age-adjusted, and variations were measured with use of high:low ratios, variation coefficients, and systematic components of variation. Potential causes of variation were analyzed with use of Spearman and partial correlations as well as with Poisson regression. RESULTS: Rates for the three procedures that were studied varied from one state to another by as much as tenfold. Humeral head replacement had the lowest rate of variation according to all three measures. All three procedures were performed less often in states that were more densely populated. With the numbers available for study, no consistent, significant relationship was found between the density of orthopaedists and shoulder surgeons and the rates of any procedure. CONCLUSIONS: The striking variations that were noted for these commonly performed procedures showed that there is a clear need for well designed clinical research to further define the factors that account for the variations and to examine the effectiveness and appropriate indications for the procedures.

The REMATCH trial: rationale, design, and end points. Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance for the Treatment of Congestive Heart Failure.

BACKGROUND: Because left ventricular assist devices have recently been approved by the Food and Drug Administration to support the circulation of patients with end-stage heart failure awaiting cardiac transplantation, these devices are increasingly being considered as a potential alternative to biologic cardiac replacement. The Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance for the Treatment of Congestive Heart Failure (REMATCH) trial is a multicenter study supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to compare long-term implantation of left ventricular assist devices with optimal medical management for patients with end-stage heart failure who require, but do not qualify to receive cardiac transplantation. METHODS: We discuss the rationale for conducting REMATCH, the obstacles to designing this and other randomized surgical trials, the lessons learned in conducting the multicenter pilot study, and the features of the REMATCH study design (objectives, target population, treatments, end points, analysis, and trial organization). CONCLUSIONS: We consider what will be learned from REMATCH, expectations for expanding the use of left ventricular assist devices, and future directions for assessing clinical procedures.

Volume-outcome relationships in cardiovascular operations: New York State, 1990-1995.

BACKGROUND: It has been known for nearly 20 years that, in cardiovascular operations, a significant inverse relationship exists between clinical outcomes and the volume of procedures performed. Interestingly, this relationship persists 2 decades after it was recognized. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between hospital volume and in-hospital deaths in 3 cardiovascular procedures: coronary artery bypass grafting, elective repair of abdominal aortic aneurysms, and repair of congenital cardiac defects. METHODS: The database includes all patients who were hospitalized in New York State during the years 1990 to 1995. Using standard logistic regression techniques, we analyzed the relationship between hospital volume and outcome. RESULTS: No correlation exists between hospital volume and in-hospital deaths in coronary artery bypass grafting. Statewide, 31 hospitals performed 97,137 operations over the 6-year period (overall mortality rate, 2. 75%). By contrast, most of the hospitals statewide (195 of 230 hospitals) performed 9847 elective abdominal aortic aneurysm repairs with an overall mortality rate of 5.5%. In abdominal aortic aneurysm operations, a significant inverse relationship between hospital volume and in-hospital deaths was determined. Sixteen hospitals performed 7199 repairs for congenital cardiac defects. A significant inverse relationship (which was most pronounced for neonates) was found between volume and death. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of these findings lies in the rather striking difference between the volume-outcome relationship found for operations for abdominal aortic aneurysms and congenital cardiac defects and the lack of such a relationship for coronary artery bypass grafting. This observation may be largely explained by the quality improvement program in New York State for bypass operations since 1989. If so, these results have important implications for expanding the scope of quality improvement efforts in New York State.

The effectiveness of preoperative erythropoietin in averting allogenic blood transfusion among children undergoing scoliosis surgery.

Concerns about the transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have driven the evolution of surgical transfusion practices including the use of preoperative erythropoietin (rhEPO). Although there is significant experience documenting the efficacy of preoperative rhEPO in reducing transfusion requirements for adult patients, there is little experience in the pediatric population. With 178 pediatric patients who underwent surgery for spinal deformity, a retrospective cohort study was performed using patient charts, administrative records, and blood bank computer data. Of these patients, 44% received erythropoietin and 55% did not. From the entire population, 17.5% were in the rhEPO treatment group that received homologous blood transfusion compared with 30.6% in the untreated group (p < 0.05). Among the children with idiopathic scoliosis, this effect was more pronounced, with 3.9% of rhEPO patients receiving blood transfusion compared with 23.5% of nontreated patients (p = 0.006). Additionally, rhEPO treatment was associated with a significantly decreased length of stay only for patients in the idiopathic group (9.3 vs. 6.7, p = 0.02). Use of preoperative erythropoietin in pediatric patients undergoing scoliosis surgery resulted in higher preoperative hematocrit levels. Significantly lower rates of transfusion were noted only in the idiopathic group, however. Although there is a possibility of erythropoietin "resistance" in the neuromuscular and congenital patients, alternative explanations for the lack of effect on transfusion rates may include underdosing and biases existent in this nonrandomized retrospective study.

Evolving costs of long-term left ventricular assist device implantation.

BACKGROUND: To examine the long-term costs of implanting a left ventricular assist device, we reviewed the initial hospitalization and outpatient costs for 12 patients who received a vented electric left ventricular assist device, and projected the first-year costs. METHODS: We used the ratio-of-cost-to-charges method to measure hospital costs and payments for physician time. We examined time trends in the resource use of 50 pneumatic left ventricular assist device recipients, using actuarial techniques and regression modeling. RESULTS: The average actual cost of left ventricular assist device support is $221,313 over an average of 9.5 months. If there had been no Food and Drug Administration regulatory policy precluding hospital discharge before 30 days, this value would have been $201,148. Based on this latter figure, the average predicted first-year cost is $219,139. The length of the intensive care unit stay, one of the most costly components of care, decreased significantly over time. CONCLUSIONS: The high costs of left ventricular assist device implantation are similar to those reported for cardiac transplantation. Given their success in supporting survival, we anticipate that these devices will be similarly cost-effective. However, further research is imperative to determine the cost-effectiveness of these devices beyond the introductory phase, when costs, benefits, and Food and Drug Administration requirements have stabilized.

Bridge experience with long-term implantable left ventricular assist devices. Are they an alternative to transplantation?

BACKGROUND: If long-term use of left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) as bridges to transplantation is successful, the issue of permanent device implantation in lieu of transplantation could be addressed through the creation of appropriately designed trials. Our medium-term experience with both pneumatically and electrically powered ThermoCardiosystems LVADs is presented to outline the benefits and limitations of device support in lieu of transplantation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Detailed records were kept prospectively for all patients undergoing LVAD insertion. Fifty-eight LVADs were inserted over 5 years, with a survival rate of 74%. Mean patient age was 50 years, and duration of support averaged 98 days. Although common, both preexisting infection and infection during LVAD support were not associated with increased mortality or decreased rate of successful transplantation. Thromboembolic complications were rare, occurring in only three patients (5%) despite the absence of anticoagulation. Ventricular arrhythmias were well tolerated in all patients except in cases of early perioperative right ventricular failure, with no deaths. Right ventricular failure occurred in one third of patients and was managed in a small percentage by right ventricular assist device (RVAD) support and/or inhaled nitric oxide therapy. There were no serious device malfunctions, but five graft-related hemorrhages resulted in two deaths. Finally, a variety of noncardiac surgical procedures were performed in LVAD recipients, with no major morbidity and mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Over all, our medium-term experience with implantable LVAD support is encouraging. Although additional areas of investigation exist, improvements in patients selection and management together with device alterations that have reduced the thromboembolic incidence and facilitated patient rehabilitation lead us to believe that a prospective, randomized trial is indicated to study the role that LVADs may have as an alternative to medical management.

The changing environment for technological innovation in health care.

A distinguishing feature of American health care is its emphasis on advanced technology. Yet today's changing health care environment is overhauling the engine of technological innovation. The rate and direction of technological innovation are affected by a complex of supply- and demandside factors, including biomedical research, education, patent law, regulation, health care payment, tort law, and more. Some distinguishing features of technological innovation in health care are now at increased risk. Regulatory requirements and rising payment hurdles are especially challenging to small technology companies. Closer management of health care delivery and payment, particularly the standardization that may derive from practice guidelines and clamping down on payment for investigational technologies, curtails opportunities for innovation. Levels and distribution of biomedical research funding in government and industry are changing. Financial constraints are limiting the traditional roles of academic health centers in fostering innovation. Despite notable steps in recent years to lower regulatory barriers and speed approvals, especially for products for life-threatening conditions, the Food and Drug Administration is under great pressure from Congress, industry, and patients to do more. Technology gatekeeping is shifting from hundreds of thousands of physicians acting on behalf of their patients to fewer, yet more powerful, managed care organizations and health care networks. Beyond its direct effects on adoption, payment, and use of technologies, the extraordinary buying leverage of these large providers is cutting technology profit margins and heightening competition among technology companies. It is contributing to unprecedented restructuring of the pharmaceutical and medical device industries, leading to unprecedented alliances with generic product companies, health care providers, utilization review companies, and other agents. These industry changes are already having considerable effects on investment patterns and the development, adoption, and use of new technologies. Until recently, new technologies that offered the prospect for health benefit, however, marginal or unproven, were paid for with little or no regard to cost. Technical wizardry alone no longer carries the day in health care. Today's health care market increasingly demands what other markets do--measurable improvements in benefits at acceptable costs--and innovators have begun to respond accordingly. Even so, certain key venues for health care innovation are at risk.

The future and health care technology: implications of a system for early identification.

Future and emerging health care technologies are increasingly high-impact events for society in terms of the quality and costs of health care. They raise issues of efficacy, safety, resource allocation, ethics, impact on the organization and delivery of care, and broad social effects. This article describes an analysis of future and emerging health care technology, initiated by the government of the Netherlands and carried out formally from 1985 to 1988, and its potential usefulness in a policy and decision-making context. Using the results and experiences of this analysis, it is argued that rational health care planning and decision-making can be strengthened by paying more attention to the possible implications of emerging and future technology.