Secretion of 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate as a limiting factor for isobutanol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Isobutanol is a superior biofuel compared to ethanol, and it is naturally produced by yeasts. Previously, Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been genetically engineered to improve isobutanol production. We found that yeast cells engineered for a cytosolic isobutanol biosynthesis secrete large amounts of the intermediate 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate (DIV). This indicates that the enzyme dihydroxyacid dehydratase (Ilv3) is limiting the isobutanol pathway and/or yeast exhibit effective transport systems for the secretion of the intermediate, competing with isobutanol synthesis. Moreover, we found that DIV cannot be taken up by the cells again. To identify the responsible transporters, microarray analysis was performed with a DIV producing strain compared to a wild type. Altogether, 19 genes encoding putative transporters were upregulated under DIV-producing conditions. Thirteen of these were deleted together with five homologous genes. A yro2 mrh1 deletion strain showed reduced DIV secretion, while a hxt5 deletion mutant showed increased isobutanol production. However, a strain deleted for all the 18 genes secreted even slightly increased amounts of the intermediates and less isobutanol. The lactate transporter Jen1 turned out to transport the intermediate 2-ketoisovalerate, but not DIV. The results suggest that the transport of DIV is a rather complex process and several unspecific transporters seem to be involved.

Simplified CRISPR-Cas genome editing for Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

CRISPR-Cas has become a powerful technique for genetic engineering of yeast. Here, we present an improved version by using only one single plasmid expressing Cas9 and one or two guide-RNAs. A high gene deletion efficiency was achieved even with simultaneous recombination cloning of the plasmid and deletion in industrial strains.

Recombinant hepatitis C virus-envelope protein 2 interactions with low-density lipoprotein/CD81 receptors

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope protein 2 (E2) is involved in viral binding to host cells. The aim of this work was to produce recombinant E2B and E2Y HCV proteins in Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris, respectively, and to study their interactions with low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLr) and CD81 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and the ECV304 bladder carcinoma cell line. To investigate the effects of human LDL and differences in protein structure (glycosylated or not) on binding efficiency, the recombinant proteins were either associated or not associated with lipoproteins before being assayed. The immunoreactivity of the recombinant proteins was analysed using pooled serum samples that were either positive or negative for hepatitis C. The cells were immunophenotyped by LDLr and CD81 using flow cytometry. Binding and binding inhibition assays were performed in the presence of LDL, foetal bovine serum (FCS) and specific antibodies. The results revealed that binding was reduced in the absence of FCS, but that the addition of human LDL rescued and increased binding capacity. In HUVEC cells, the use of antibodies to block LDLr led to a significant reduction in the binding of E2B and E2Y. CD81 antibodies did not affect E2B and E2Y binding. In ECV304 cells, blocking LDLr and CD81 produced similar effects, but they were not as marked as those that were observed in HUVEC cells. In conclusion, recombinant HCV E2 is dependent on LDL for its ability to bind to LDLr in HUVEC and ECV304 cells. These findings are relevant because E2 acts to anchor HCV to host cells; therefore, high blood levels of LDL could enhance viral infectivity in chronic hepatitis C patients.

Recombinant hepatitis C virus-envelope protein 2 interactions with low-density lipoprotein/CD81 receptors.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope protein 2 (E2) is involved in viral binding to host cells. The aim of this work was to produce recombinant E2B and E2Y HCV proteins in Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris, respectively, and to study their interactions with low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLr) and CD81 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and the ECV304 bladder carcinoma cell line. To investigate the effects of human LDL and differences in protein structure (glycosylated or not) on binding efficiency, the recombinant proteins were either associated or not associated with lipoproteins before being assayed. The immunoreactivity of the recombinant proteins was analysed using pooled serum samples that were either positive or negative for hepatitis C. The cells were immunophenotyped by LDLr and CD81 using flow cytometry. Binding and binding inhibition assays were performed in the presence of LDL, foetal bovine serum (FCS) and specific antibodies. The results revealed that binding was reduced in the absence of FCS, but that the addition of human LDL rescued and increased binding capacity. In HUVEC cells, the use of antibodies to block LDLr led to a significant reduction in the binding of E2B and E2Y. CD81 antibodies did not affect E2B and E2Y binding. In ECV304 cells, blocking LDLr and CD81 produced similar effects, but they were not as marked as those that were observed in HUVEC cells. In conclusion, recombinant HCV E2 is dependent on LDL for its ability to bind to LDLr in HUVEC and ECV304 cells. These findings are relevant because E2 acts to anchor HCV to host cells; therefore, high blood levels of LDL could enhance viral infectivity in chronic hepatitis C patients.

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of butanol isomers.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae has decisive advantages in industrial processes due to its tolerance to alcohols and fermentation conditions. Butanol isomers are considered as suitable fuel substitutes and valuable biomass-derived chemical building blocks. Whereas high production was achieved with bacterial systems, metabolic engineering of yeast for butanol production is in the beginning. For isobutanol synthesis, combination of valine biosynthesis and degradation, and complete pathway re-localisation into cytosol or mitochondria gave promising results. However, competing pathways, co-factor imbalances and FeS cluster assembly are still major issues. 1-Butanol production via the Clostridium pathway seems to be limited by cytosolic acetyl-CoA, its central precursor. Endogenous 1-butanol pathways have been discovered via threonine or glycine catabolism. 2-Butanol production was established but was limited by B12-dependence.

Inflammatory response of endothelial cells to hepatitis C virus recombinant envelope glycoprotein 2 protein exposure.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) encodes approximately 10 different structural and non-structural proteins, including the envelope glycoprotein 2 (E2). HCV proteins, especially the envelope proteins, bind to cell receptors and can damage tissues. Endothelial inflammation is the most important determinant of fibrosis progression and, consequently, cirrhosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the inflammatory response of endothelial cells to two recombinant forms of the HCV E2 protein produced in different expression systems (Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris). We observed the induction of cell death and the production of nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, interleukin-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor A in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) stimulated by the two recombinant E2 proteins. The E2-induced apoptosis of HUVECs was confirmed using the molecular marker PARP. The apoptosis rescue observed when the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine was used suggests that reactive oxygen species are involved in E2-induced apoptosis. We propose that these proteins are involved in the chronic inflammation caused by HCV.

Inflammatory response of endothelial cells to hepatitis C virus recombinant envelope glycoprotein 2 protein exposure

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) encodes approximately 10 different structural and non-structural proteins, including the envelope glycoprotein 2 (E2). HCV proteins, especially the envelope proteins, bind to cell receptors and can damage tissues. Endothelial inflammation is the most important determinant of fibrosis progression and, consequently, cirrhosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the inflammatory response of endothelial cells to two recombinant forms of the HCV E2 protein produced in different expression systems (Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris). We observed the induction of cell death and the production of nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, interleukin-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor A in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) stimulated by the two recombinant E2 proteins. The E2-induced apoptosis of HUVECs was confirmed using the molecular marker PARP. The apoptosis rescue observed when the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine was used suggests that reactive oxygen species are involved in E2-induced apoptosis. We propose that these proteins are involved in the chronic inflammation caused by HCV.