Copper toxicity to earthworms: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis.

Copper can accumulate in agricultural topsoil through the use of Cu-based fungicides, which may harm soil organisms such as earthworms. This study aimed at reviewing the effects of copper on earthworms at different levels of biological organization, and to determine critical values of copper toxicity to earthworms using a meta-analysis and accounting for lethal and sub-lethal effects and different earthworm species and exposure conditions. Endpoints at the sub-individual level were more sensitive than at higher levels of organization. At the individual level, the most sensitive endpoints were reproduction and growth (hatching success, hatchling growth). Hormetic growth was clearly recognized at copper concentrations less than 80 mg kg-1 in dry soil. However, effects at the sub-individual level already occurred at lower concentrations. Considering all the exposure conditions, the calculated weighted means were 113 mg Cu kg-1 dry soil (95% CI -356; 582) for the LC50 (lethal concentration for 50% of the exposed individuals), 94.6 mg Cu kg-1 dry soil (95% CI 14.0; 175) for the EC50 reproduction, and 144 mg Cu kg-1 dry soil (95% CI -12.6; 301) for the EC50 growth or weight change. When accounting for the origin of the soil, earthworms were five times more sensitive to copper (LC50) in natural than in artificial soils. The different factors affecting Cu toxicity to earthworms explain the high variability of these values, making it difficult to derive thresholds. However, considering the potential negative effects of copper on earthworms, attention should be given to the more sustainable use of human-contributed copper in agricultural soils.

Influence of copper on root exudate patterns in some metallophytes and agricultural plants.

A hydroponic experiment was carried out to determine the root exudation patterns in two Cu-metallophytes (Oenothera picensis and Imperata condensata) and two agricultural plants (Lupinus albus and Helianthus annuus). Plants were grown in nutrient solution at increasing Cu doses (0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2mgCuL(-1)), and plant growth, root elongation, Cu accumulation and root exudates were measured. All plants showed a decrease of over 60% in root elongation at the highest Cu supply level, being O. picensis the most sensitive specie and showing the highest shoot and root Cu concentrations (116 and 2657µgCug(-1), respectively), which were six fold higher than the other species. Differences in root exudation patterns of low molecular weight organic acids were found, with extremely high amounts of succinic acid exuded by O. picensis (1049µmolg(-1)h(-1)), and citric acid by I. condensata (164µmolg(-1)h(-1)). In metallophytes, the organic acid exudation was increased even with no root elongation, meanwhile agricultural plants exuded citric acid at constant levels. Exudation of phenolic compounds was highly species-dependent, with catechin mainly exuded by I. condensata, (2.62µmolg(-1)h(-1)) cinnamic acid by O. picensis (5.08µmolg(-1)h(-1)) and coumaric acid exclusively exuded by H. annuus (13.6µmolg(-1)h(-1)) at high Cu levels. These results indicated that differences in root exudation patterns among metallophytes and agricultural plants could affect their Cu tolerance. Particularly, the higher exudation rate showed by I. condensata can be an effective exclusion mechanism to tolerate high Cu concentrations, supporting its use in Cu phytostabilization programs.

Factors influencing the composition of bacterial communities found at abandoned copper-tailings dumps.

AIMS: To study the effect that copper residues exert on bacterial communities and the ability of bacteria to colonize different microhabitats in abandoned tailing dumps. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used the terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique, a culture-independent molecular approach based on PCR amplification of ribosomal genes, to compare the structure of the bacterial communities from samples taken at two nearby located abandoned tailing dumps found in the Mediterranean-climate area of central Chile. Our results show that elevated available copper content in tailings has a strong effect on the bacterial community composition, but that other factors like pH and organic matter content also play an important role in the structure of these communities. We also found that the number of abundant bacteria in these samples was significantly lower than in soils not exposed to metal pollution. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to bioavailable copper, bacterial communities found in copper-tailings dumps are also affected by several other environmental factors. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This first report on environmental factors influencing microbial communities in copper-tailings dumps will help to devise appropriate restoration procedures in this type of polluted habitat.

Relationship between soil copper content and copper content of selected crop plants in central Chile.

A survey of copper levels in agricultural soils of central Chile revealed two soil clusters-one with a mean copper level of 162 mg/kg and one with a mean copper level of 751 mg/kg of soil. Samples of soils from both soil clusters were characterized on the basis of physicochemical characteristics, and copper extractability was compared by saturation and CaCl2 extraction as well as an acid-leaching procedure (TCLP). We also measured the copper content of various tissues of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and onion (Allium cepa) crops growing on these soils. Other than copper levels, soils from the two clusters were quite similar, with slightly greater levels of molybdenum and cadmium in the high-copper soils. Within each cluster, extracted copper levels and total soil copper levels were not correlated. However, the three extraction procedures solubilized significantly more copper from the high-Cu soils. Mineralogical characterization of the soil particles and depth profiles of soil metal levels in a subsample of sites suggested that highly insoluble copper ore and mining wastes might account for the high copper levels. Neither total nor extractable copper levels allowed statistical prediction of the levels of copper in plant tissue. The edible tissues of both crops had the same mean copper content, regardless of the copper soil level. However, copper contents of stems and leaves were significantly higher for plants growing on the high-Cu soils. These results show that in these soils, high copper levels are associated with very insoluble copper species and thus low bioavailability of copper to crop plants.

Effects of a copper smelter on a grassland community in the Puchuncaví Valley, Chile.

A grassland formation has been subjected to pollution generated by the Ventanas copper smelter since 1964 (Puchuncaví Valley, central zone of Chile) with extensive damage to local vegetation and important changes in soil characteristics. The aims of the study were (1) to detect soil parameters that best explain changes observed in plant species richness and abundance and (2) to determine if pollution-derived stresses have also affected regeneration capabilities of plant communities from the soil seed bank. The grassland was quantitatively analysed in terms of physicochemical soil characteristics, plant species diversity and abundance, and soil seed bank species composition and abundance. Results showed that a decrease in total soil nitrogen explained 13% of the changes detected in plant abundance while soil pH and 0.05 M EDTA extractable copper explained 10% and 7%, respectively, of the vegetation change. It was also found that the pollution has already affected plant species regeneration capabilities from the soil seed bank and the microsite distribution of the seeds in soils.

Interpretation of metameric architecture in dominant shrubs of the Chilean matorral.

The seasonal progression of phenophases in 21 shrub species of the Chilean matorral was analyzed. Five "modules" or basic units that are responsible for the aboveground architecture of the plants were characterized. These modules appear to be organized in seven different spatial arrangements. In drought-deciduous species a module type with an "absolute short shoot" with limited apical growth, leafy or spiny, predominated. In evergreen species "long shoot" and "temporal leafy short shoot" module types were more frequent. The spatial arrangement of morphologically different modules and the temporal sequence of their formation allow a dynamic interpretation of the modular architecture of the plants.