Tracheal tube tip displacement during laparoscopy in children*.

The risk of endobronchial intubation during laparoscopy because of displacement of the tip of the tracheal tube is a well known problem in adults. Laparoscopy in children is increasingly performed, but there are no data available regarding the above problem. We prospectively studied 46 children aged 2 months to 15.7 years (median 4.2 years) undergoing laparoscopy. After tracheal intubation with the Microcuff Pediatric Endotracheal Tube, with the 'intubation depth marking' of the tube at the vocal cords, the distance from the tracheal tube tip to the carina was endoscopically measured with the patient in the neutral position and with 20 degrees head-down tilt, both with and without capnoperitoneum. Maximal displacement of the tip of the tracheal tube tip in cm was 0.5+(0.05xage (years)) for 20 degrees head-down tilt, 0.6+(0.09xage (years)) for capnoperitoneum alone, and 1.2+(0.11xage (years)) for 20 degrees head-down tilt with capnoperitoneum. In no patients did endobronchial intubation occur with the tracheal tube placed according to the intubation depth marking.

Impact of carbon dioxide versus air pneumoperitoneum on peritoneal cell migration and cell fate.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative systemic immune function is suppressed after open abdominal surgery, as compared with that after minimally invasive abdominal surgery. As a first line of defense, peritoneal macrophages (PMo) and polymorphonuclear neutrophil granulocytes (PMNs) are of primary importance in protecting the body from microorganisms. Previous studies have shown changes in these cell populations over time after open versus laparoscopic surgery. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of cell recruitment and clearance of peritoneal cells. METHODS: Female NMRI mice (33 +/- 2 g) were randomly assigned to carbon dioxide (CO2) or air insufflation. Intravasal cells with phagocytic capabilities were selectively stained by intravenous injection of the fluorescent dye PKH26 24 h before surgery. Gas was insufflated into the peritoneal cavity through a catheter, and the pneumoperitoneum was maintained for 30 min. Peritoneal lavage was performed 1, 3, 8, or 24 h after surgery. Apoptotic cells were assessed by flow cytometry using a general caspase substrate. RESULTS: The total peritoneal cell count did not differ between groups. The PKH26-positive PMo level was significantly increased after CO2, as compared with air, at 1 h and 24 h. The ratio of apoptotic PMo did not differ between the groups. In the peritoneal lavage, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) were tripled in the air group, as compared with the CO2 group, whereas the ratio of apoptotic PMNs was significantly decreased. There was a higher fraction of PKH26-positive PMNs after air exposure, as compared with that after CO2. CONCLUSIONS: Air exposure triggered a higher transmigration rate of PMNs from the blood compartment into the peritoneal cavity and decreased PMN apoptosis, as compared with CO2. The lower proportion of PKH26-positive peritoneal macrophages in the air group might have been attributable to a higher inflammatory stimulation than in the CO2 group, leading to increased emigration of PMo to draining lymph nodes. All the findings underscore a complex cell-specific regulation of cell recruitment and clearance in the peritoneal compartment.

Early peritoneal macrophage function after laparoscopic surgery compared with laparotomy in a mouse mode.

BACKGROUND: The authors previously demonstrated postoperative preservation of the immune function measured by delayed-type skin reaction and tumor growth after laparoscopic surgery, as compared with laparotomy. For further elucidation of the origin of the demonstrated immune preservation, peritoneal macrophage (PMo) function was investigated 1 h after different surgical procedures. METHODS: Female NMRI mice were divided into five groups: anesthesia only, abdominal skin incision, laparotomy, peritoneal carbon dioxide (CO2) insufflation, and peritoneal air insufflation. Escherichia Coli phagocytosis, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) release of isolated PMo were investigated. RESULTS: All invasive interventions reduced the PMo phagocytosis by factors of approximately 2 to 4.7, as compared with the sham control group. Spontaneous ex vivo TNF-alpha release was significantly increased whenever the abdominal cavity was exposed to ambient air. The macrophage's ability to release TNF-alpha after E. coli exposure was diminished in the abdominal air exposure groups, as compared with the CO2 insufflation group. CONCLUSION: Reduced phagocytosis 1 h after surgical interventions suggests a contribution of PMo to the altered immune function. When exposed to CO2, PMo show a decreased basal TNF-alpha release. However, PMo also show an increased TNF-alpha release after a second immune stimulation (E. coli), suggesting a greater competency of interaction in an immune defense reaction after CO2 exposure.

Dorsal flexion of head and neck for rigid oesophagoscopy--a caution for hidden foreign bodies dropped into the epipharynx.

A 32-month-old girl presented with a swallowed coin in the mid-oesophagus verified by chest radiography. Rigid oesophagoscopy was performed under general anaesthesia with muscle paralysis and tracheal intubation with dorsal flexion of the head and neck. The coin could be grasped using 'optical forceps'. When the oesophagoscope-forceps assembly was removed, the coin had disappeared. Repeated explorations of the oesophagus including direct laryngoscopy were unsuccessful. A further direct laryngoscopy, while placing the head in the neutral position, revealed the coin just dislodging from the epipharyngeal space in the hypopharynx, from where it was removed with a Magill forceps (Arnold Bott, Glattbrugg, Switzerland). Dorsal flexion of the head and neck during foreign body removal may allow entry of the foreign body or easily fragmented foreign bodies into the epipharyngeal cavity. Exploration is recommend using naso-pharyngeal suction and direct laryngoscopy with the head in the neutral position before tracheal extubation in order to avoid acute airway obstruction.

Cell-mediated immune response is better preserved by laparoscopy than laparotomy.

BACKGROUND: This study compares the effects of carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum versus laparotomy on cellular-mediated immune response in a murine model. METHODS: Sixty-eight female C3H/He mice were sensitized to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and to a mouse mammary carcinoma cell line (MC2) before surgery. Animals were randomized into 4 groups: group I, anesthesia (control); group II, pneumoperitoneum with carbon dioxide; group III, extraperitoneal wound; group IV, laparotomy. All animals were challenged subsequently with KLH and MC2 tumor cells. Delayed-type hypersensitivity skin reaction (DTH) to KLH was measured on postoperative days (PODs) 1, 2, 4, and 5. Tumor growth was assessed weekly as an indicator of postoperative cellular immune response. RESULTS: Compared with preoperative values, postoperative DTH skin reactions were significantly less for all PODs in groups III and IV (P < .05), on POD 1 and 4 in group II (P < .05) and POD 4 for group I (P < .05). Group IV showed significantly fewer DTH skin reactions for all PODs compared with groups I and II (P < .05) and all PODs except on day 2 compared with group III (P < .05). Tumor growth was significantly increased at postoperative week 2 (n = 3/17 mice) and 3 (n = 4/17 mice) in group IV, when compared with groups I and II (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Cellular immunity is preserved after carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum compared with extraperitoneal incisions and laparotomy as measured by DTH and the ability to reject an immunogenictumor.

Comparison of the stress response after laparoscopic and open cholecystectomy.

BACKGROUND: We designed a prospective controlled animal study to compare the stress response induced after laparoscopic and open cholecystectomy. METHODS: Twelve female pigs (20-25 kg body weight) were anesthetized with ketamine, pentobarbital, and fentanyl. The animals were randomized into the following four groups: control (C), pneumoperitoneum with CO(2) at 14-15 mmHg (P), laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC), and open cholecystectomy (OC). The average duration of the procedure in each group was 35 min. RESULTS: Central venous pressure, mean arterial pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, and cardiac output were monitored. Measurements were recorded when animals were anesthetized (baseline), immediately before and after surgery, and thereafter every 30 min for a maximum of 3 h. White blood cell count (WBC) was determined from blood samples taken before and after 3 h of surgery. Ultrasound-guided liver biopsies were done preoperatively and after 3 h of surgery. Total RNA was isolated from the liver biopsy specimens. Steady-state mRNA levels of beta-fibrinogen (beta-fib), alpha 1-chymotrypsin inhibitor (alpha1-CTI), metallothionein (MT), heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70), and polyubiquitin (Ub) were detected by Northern blot/hybridization. There were no statistical differences in the hemodynamic parameters among the groups. The number of circulating neutrophils and monocytes decreased only after LC. Expression of Hsp70 was not induced after any surgical procedure, and the mRNA levels of Ub did not change after surgery. The expression of alpha1-CTI and beta-fib (acute phase genes) were similarly increased after LC and OC. Steady-state mRNA levels of MT were slightly increased after P and LC but not after OC. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that there are no significant differences between LC and OC in terms of induction of the stress response.

The infantile inguinal hernia - a bilateral disease?

Controversy continues whether exploration of the contralateral, asymptomatic side should routinely be performed since Rothenberg and Barnett stated in 1955 that a contralateral hernia is present in three out of four children presenting with a symptomatic unilateral inguinal hernia (IH). In our institution, hernia operations are performed on the symptomatic side only, the exception being male infants under 1 year of age with a left-sided IH. To verify our concept and to evaluate the frequency of contralateral hernial development, the medical records of all infants under 1 year of age operated upon between 1984 and 1988 were reviewed and the children followed through December 1996. Included in the study were 882 infants, 616 boys (70%) and 266 girls (30%); 148 (17%) were born prematurely. Seventy percent were operated upon before the end of the 3rd month of life. In 761 infants clinical signs of a unilateral hernia were present, and in 121 symptomatic hernias were found on both sides; 665 infants were operated upon unilaterally. A second operation on the opposite side was necessary in 38 cases (5.7%). The highest incidence of contralateral hernial development was found in premature boys (11.5%). We conclude that even in infants below 1 year of age, IH is usually a unilateral disease and does not require routine exploration of the asymptomatic side.

Immune response: effects of operative stress in a pediatric model.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to delineate the effect of different operative procedures on the cell-mediated immune response in a pediatric animal model using the delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin test. METHODS: Sprague Dawley rats (1 week old) were sensitized against keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). Animals were challenged 2 weeks later by an intradermal injection of KLH (0.3 mg) in sterile saline. Rats with positive DTH skin reactions at 24 and 48 hours after challenge (baseline) were divided randomly into five groups (n = 10 each): group I, unmanipulated control; group II, anesthesia; group III, anesthesia and midline extraperitoneal incision; Group IV, anesthesia and laparoscopy (pneumoperitoneum with carbon dioxide); Group V, anesthesia and midline laparotomy. Before each procedure (day 0) and on postoperative days 3 and 6, animals were again challenged intradermally with KLH (0.3 mg). DTH skin reaction was evaluated 24 and 48 hours later. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference (P < .05) in DTH skin reaction at 24 and 48 hours was observed between postoperative days 1 to 5 in the extraperitoneal and laparotomy groups with respect to baseline and the control group. Statistically significant differences were found in postoperative days 1, 4, and 5 between laparoscopy and laparotomy. The laparoscopy group showed a statistically significant decrease in DTH skin induration on postoperative day 2 when compared with the control group. At postoperative day 7 and 8 there was no statistical difference in DTH skin response comparing baseline values or between groups. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that in a pediatric animal model, abdominal surgical procedures accompanied by extensive tissue dissection produce a cellular immunosuppression, lasting up to 7 days, which is not observed in less invasive procedures. Observations concerning lesser immunosuppressive effects of laparoscopy when compared with laparotomy in adult models, as previously described by our laboratory, were also found in this pediatric model.

Increased mediastinal pressure and decreased cardiac output during laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) is gaining popularity. Although the hemodynamic effects of the typical pneumoperitoneum have been studied, the additional consequences of the hiatal dissection necessary for LNF have not. METHODS: Seven female pigs were anesthetized, intubated, and ventilated with a volume ventilator and hemodynamic and mechanical pressure monitoring devices were placed. Pressures were recorded every 15 minutes for 1 hour after each of four interventions: (1) anesthesia induction, (2) CO2 pneumoperitoneum (15 mm Hg), (3) LNF, and (4) release of pneumoperitoneum (and removal of ports). RESULTS: Right atrial, inferior vena caval, mediastinal, pleural, airway, and pulmonary capillary wedge pressures all increased after pneumoperitoneum (p < 0.05). Only mediastinal pressure (8.6 vs 13.7 mm Hg, pneumoperitoneum vs LNF; p < 0.05) and pleural pressure (2.6 vs 3.5 mm Hg, pneumoperitoneum vs LNF; p < 0.05) showed a further significant increase after LNF. In addition, cardiac output fell significantly after LNF (5.9 vs. 4.6 L/min; p < 0.05). Mediastinal pressure and cardiac output remained significantly altered after the release of pneumoperitoneum. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical disruption of the esophageal hiatus during LNF causes both increased mediastinal and pleural pressure and a significant reduction in cardiac output. These findings uncover a previously unsuspected physiologic detriment that may occur during LNF.