Effect of PMA-induced protein kinase C activation on development and apoptosis in early zebrafish embryos.

Protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms have been implicated in several key steps during early development, but the consequences of xenobiotic-induced PKC activation during early embryogenesis are still unknown. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to a range of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) concentrations (0-200µg/L) at different time points after fertilization. Results showed that 200µgPMA/L caused development of yolk bags, cardiac edema, slow blood flow, pulsating blood flow, slow pulse, elongated heart, lack of tail fins, curved tail, and coagulation. PMA exposure decreased survival rate of the embryos starting within the first 24h and becoming more pronounced after prolonged exposure (96h). PMA increased the number of apoptotic cells in the brain region as demonstrated by acridine orange staining and caused up-regulation of caspase 9 (casp9) and p53 up-regulated modulator of apoptosis (puma) mRNA in whole embryos. PMA caused oxidative stress in the embryos as demonstrated by decreased mRNA expression of catalase and superoxide dismutase 2. Inhibition of Pkc with GF109203X improved overall survival rate, reduced apoptosis in the brain and decreased expression of casp9 and puma in the PMA-exposed embryos. However, Pkc inhibition neither prevented development of deformities nor reversed oxidative stress in the PMA-exposed embryos. These data suggest that direct over-activation of Pkc during early embryogenesis of zebrafish is associated with apoptosis and decreased survival rate of the embryos.

Atrazine blocks ovulation via suppression of Lhr and Cyp19a1 mRNA and estradiol secretion in immature gonadotropin-treated rats.

We investigated whether in vivo exposure to herbicide atrazine (ATR) exerts anovulatory effect by direct action in the ovary. Female rats were given ATR (50mg/kg body weight) during equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) priming. Forty eight hours after eCG administration, the animals were injected with human CG (hCG) to induce ovulation. ATR blocked ovulation and prevented expression of epiregulin and progesterone receptor mRNA in hCG-treated animals. During eCG-induced follicular growth, ATR suppressed luteinizing hormone receptor (Lhr) and aromatase expression in granulosa cells and decreased estradiol (E2) serum levels. ATR increased cytochrome p450 1b1 (Cyp1b1) mRNA expression after both in vivo and in vitro exposures. In vitro addition of beta-naphthoflavone, a known Cyp1b1 mRNA inductor, suppressed follicle-stimulating hormone-induced Lhr expression. Collectively, these data indicate that under in vivo conditions, ATR may act directly on granulosa cells by decreasing E2 levels and Lhr mRNA, thus leading to inhibition of ovulation.

Toxicological and chemical investigation of untreated municipal wastewater: Fraction- and species-specific toxicity.

Absence of a municipal wastewater (WW) treatment plant results in the untreated WW discharge into the recipient. The present study investigated toxic effects and chemical composition of water extracts and fractions from untreated WW and recipient Danube River (DR). Samples were prepared by solid-phase extraction and silica gel fractionation and screened for EROD activity and cytotoxicity using aquatic models, comprising of fish liver cells (PLHC-1) and a model of the early development of zebrafish embryos, while rat (H4IIE) and human (HepG2) hepatoma cells served as mammalian models. Polar fraction caused cytotoxicity and increased the EROD activity in PLHC-1 cells, and increased mortality and developmental abnormalities in developing zebrafish embryos. In H4IIE, polar fraction induced inhibition of cell growth and increased EROD activity, whereas HepG2 exerted low or no response to the exposure. Non-polar and medium-polar fractions were ineffective. Tentative identification by GC/MS showed that WW is characterized by the hydrocarbons, alkylphenols, plasticizers, and a certain number of benzene derivatives and organic acids. In DR, smaller number of organic compounds was identified and toxicity was less pronounced than in WW treatments. The present study revealed the potent toxic effect of polar fraction of untreated WW, with biological responses varying in sensitivity across organisms. Obtained results confirmed that fraction- and species-specific toxicity should be considered when assessing health risk of environmental pollution.

Erk-Creb pathway suppresses glutathione-S-transferase pi expression under basal and oxidative stress conditions in zebrafish embryos.

Transcriptional activation of phase II enzymes including glutathione-S-transferase pi class (Gst Pi) is important for redox regulation and defense from xenobiotics. The role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and protein kinase B (Akt) in regulation of Gst Pi expression has been described using adult mammalian cells. Whether these signaling pathways contribute to Gst Pi expression during embryogenesis is unknown. Using zebrafish embryo model, we provide novel evidence that Erk signaling acts as a specific suppressor of gstp1-2 mRNA during early embryogenesis. Addition of Erk inhibitor U0126 enhanced gstp1-2 mRNA expression during transition from blastula to the segmentation stage and from pharyngula until the hatching stage. Basal Erk activity did not affect gstp1-2 expression in tert-butylhydroquinone-exposed embryos. Addition of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate increased Erk activity leading to suppression of gstp1-2 mRNA. Activation of cAMP/Creb pathway by forskolin prevented gstp1-2 expression, whereas U0126 suppressed Creb phosphorylation, thus setting up Creb as a proximal transmitter of Erk inhibitory effect. Collectively, these findings suggest that Erk-Creb pathway exerts suppressive effect on gstp1-2 mRNA in a narrow developmental window. This study also provides a novel link between Erk and gstp1-2 expression, setting apart a possible differential regulation of gstp1-2 in adult and embryonic cells.

Transcriptional profiles of glutathione-S-Transferase isoforms, Cyp, and AOE genes in atrazine-exposed zebrafish embryos.

Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) superfamily consists of multiple members involved in xenobiotic metabolism. Expressional pattern of the GST isoforms in adult fish has been used as a biomarker of exposure to environmental chemicals. However, GST transcriptional responses vary across organs, thus requiring a cross-tissue examination of multiple mRNAs for GST profiling in an animal after chemical exposure. Zebrafish embryos express all GST isoforms as adult fish and could therefore represent an alternative model for identification of biomarkers of exposure. To evaluate such a possibility, we studied a set of cytosolic and microsomal GST isoform-specific expression profiles in the zebrafish embryos after exposure to atrazine, a widely used herbicide. Expression of the GST isoforms was compared with that of CYP genes involved in the phase I of xenobiotic metabolism and antioxidant enzyme (AOE) genes. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we showed dynamic changes in the expressional pattern of twenty GST isoforms, cyp1a, cyp3a65, ahr2, and four AOEs in early development of zebrafish. Acute (48 and 72 h) exposure of 24 h-old embryos to atrazine, from environmentally relevant (0.005 mg/L) to high (40 mg/L) concentrations, caused a variety of transient, albeit minor changes (<2.5-fold) in the GST isoforms, ahr2 and AOE genes response. However, expression of cyp1a and cyp3a65 mRNA was markedly and consistently induced by high doses of atrazine (5 and 40 mg/L). In summary, an analysis of the response of multiple systems in the zebrafish embryos provided a comprehensive understanding of atrazine toxicity and its potential impact on biological processes.

Differential expression of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 genes in H4IIE rat hepatoma cells exposed to TCDD and PAHs.

Rat hepatoma cells H4IIE were treated by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (dibenz(a,h)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, chrysene), low-concentration mixtures of PAHs and TCDD, and environmental mixtures contaminated by PAHs and their derivatives. Expression of the gene battery comprising cytochrome P450 Cyp1a1, Cyp1a2, Cyp1b1, and glutathione-s-transferase Gsta2 and Gstp was investigated using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. The results revealed that TCDD induce Cyp1a1>Cyp1a2>Cyp1b1, while PAHs and PAH-containing environmental mixtures induce Cyp1a2>Cyp1a1>Cyp1b1 gene expression pattern. While low-concentration mixtures elicited a more pronounced response in comparison to single treatments, the typical gene expression patterns were not observed. In all samples, Gsta2 was predominantly expressed relative to Gstp. These findings indicate that differential Cyp1a1 and Cyp1a2 expression in the H4IIE cells might be used for detection of PAHs in highly contaminated environmental mixtures, but not in low-concentration mixtures of these compounds.

Characterization of glutathione-S-transferases in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) are one of the key enzymes that mediate phase II of cellular detoxification. The aim of our study was a comprehensive characterization of GSTs in zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an important vertebrate model species frequently used in environmental research. A detailed phylogenetic analysis of GST superfamily revealed 27 zebrafish gst genes. Further insights into the orthology relationships between human and zebrafish GSTs/Gsts were obtained by the conserved synteny analysis. Expression of gst genes in six tissues (liver, kidney, gills, intestine, brain and gonads) of adult male and female zebrafish was determined using qRT-PCR. Functional characterization was performed on 9 cytosolic Gst enzymes after overexpression in E. coli and subsequent protein purification. Enzyme kinetics was measured for GSH and a series of model substrates. Our data revealed ubiquitously high expression of gstp, gstm (except in liver), gstr1, mgst3a and mgst3b, high expression of gsto2 in gills and ovaries, gsta in intestine and testes, gstt1a in liver, and gstz1 in liver, kidney and brain. All zebrafish Gsts catalyzed the conjugation of GSH to model GST substrates 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and monochlorobimane (MCB), apart from Gsto2 and Gstz1 that catalyzed GSH conjugation to dehydroascorbate (DHA) and dichloroacetic acid (DCA), respectively. Affinity toward CDNB varied from 0.28 mM (Gstp2) to 3.69 mM (Gstm3), while affinity toward MCB was in the range of 5 µM (Gstt1a) to 250 µM (Gstp1). Affinity toward GSH varied from 0.27 mM (Gstz1) to 4.45 mM (Gstt1a). Turnover number for CDNB varied from 5.25s(-1) (Gstt1a) to 112s(-1) (Gstp2). Only Gst Pi enzymes utilized ethacrynic acid (ETA). We suggest that Gstp1, Gstp2, Gstt1a, Gstz1, Gstr1, Mgst3a and Mgst3b have important role in the biotransformation of xenobiotics, while Gst Alpha, Mu, Pi, Zeta and Rho classes are involved in the crucial physiological processes. In summary, this study provides the first comprehensive analysis of GST superfamily in zebrafish, presents new insight into distinct functions of individual Gsts, and offers methodological protocols that can be used for further verification of interaction of environmental contaminants with fish Gsts.

HBCDD-induced sustained reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP and steroidogenesis in peripubertal rat Leydig cells.

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), a brominated flame retardant added to various consumer products, is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. We have previously shown that 6-hour exposure to HBCDD disturbs basal and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-induced steroidogenesis in rat Leydig cells. Reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and cAMP production was also observed. Here, we further expanded research on the effect of HBCDD on Leydig cells by using a prolonged exposure scenario. Cells were incubated in the presence of HBCDD during 24h and then treated with HBCDD+hCG for additional 2h. Results showed that HBCDD caused a sustained reduction in ATP level after 24h of exposure, which persisted after additional 2-hour treatment with HBCDD+hCG. cAMP and androgen accumulations measured after 2h of HBCDD+hCG treatment were also inhibited. Real-time PCR analysis showed significant inhibition in the expression of genes for steroidogenic enzymes, luteinizing hormone receptor, regulatory and transport proteins, and several transcription factors under both treatment conditions. Western blot analysis revealed a decreased level of 30kDa steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) after HBCDD+hCG treatment. In addition, HBCDD decreased the conversion of 22-OH cholesterol to pregnenolone and androstenedione to testosterone, indicating loss of the activity of cytochrome P450C11A1 (CYP11A1) and 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD17ß). Cell survival was not affected, as confirmed by cytotoxicity and trypan blue tests or DNA fragmentation analysis. In summary, our data showed that HBCDD inhibits ATP supply, most likely through a decrease in ΔΨm, and targets multiple sites in the steroidogenic pathway in Leydig cells.

Atrazine enhances progesterone production through activation of multiple signaling pathways in FSH-stimulated rat granulosa cells: evidence for premature luteinization.

Premature luteinization is a possible cause of infertility in women. It is currently unknown whether environmental chemicals can induce changes associated with premature luteinization. Using rat granulosa cells (GC) in vitro, we demonstrated that exposure to atrazine (ATR), a widely used herbicide, causes GC phenotype that resembles that of human premature luteinization. At the end of the 48-h stimulation with FSH, ATR-exposed GC showed (1) higher levels of progesterone, (2) overexpression of luteal markers (Star and Cyp11a1), and (3) an increase in progesterone:estradiol ratio above 1. Mechanistic experiments were conducted to understand the signaling events engaged by ATR that lead to this phenotype. Western blot analysis revealed prolonged phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in ATR- and FSH-exposed GC. An increased level of ERK1/2-dependent transcriptional factor CCATT/enhancer-binding protein beta (CEBPB) was observed after 4 h of ATR exposure. Inhibitors of PI3K (wortmannin) and MEK (U0126) prevented ATR-induced rise in progesterone level and expression of luteal markers in FSH-stimulated GC. Atrazine intensified AKT and CEBPB signaling and caused Star overexpression in forskolin-stimulated GC but not in epidermal growth factor (EGF)-stimulated GC. In the presence of rolipram, a specific inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4), ATR was not able to further elevate AKT phosphorylation, CEBPB protein level, and Star mRNA in FSH-stimulated GC, suggesting that ATR inhibits PDE4. Overall, this study showed that ATR acts as a FSH sensitizer leading to enhanced cAMP, AKT, and CEBPB signaling and progesterone biosynthesis, which promotes premature luteinization phenotype in GC.

Toxicological profiles assessment of the water and sediments from the Krivaja and Jegricka Rivers, Serbia.

This study utilizes a combinatorial bio/chemical approach to assess the toxicological profiles of organic pollutants in water and sediment samples from two watercourses that are under significant anthropogenic pressure-the Krivaja and Jegricka rivers in Serbia. Sample preparation by solid-phase extraction and silica-gel fractionation followed by GC/MS analysis, allowed the tentative identification of a variety of non-target contaminants, divided into non-polar, medium-polar and polar fractions. The instrumental analysis revealed slightly different toxicological profiles for the water and sediment from both rivers, and confirmed the presence of various classes of organic contaminants, from non-polar hydrocarbons, to more polar compounds such as aldehydes, ketones and phenols. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and pesticides were identified, but below toxicologically relevant concentrations. The results of bioanalyses on H4IIE and PLHC-1 cells indicated that cytotoxic potential was pronounced in Jegricka water and sediment samples, and CYP1A inducing potential was observed in both Krivaja and Jegricka sediment samples, although they did not reflect high levels of contamination. Based on the overall data, the sediments of the Krivaja and Jegricka rivers are a more toxicologically relevant matrix than the water.

Involvement of ERK1/2 signaling pathway in atrazine action on FSH-stimulated LHR and CYP19A1 expression in rat granulosa cells.

Worldwide used herbicide atrazine is linked to reproductive dysfunction in females. In this study, we investigated the effects and the mechanism of atrazine action in the ovary using a primary culture of immature granulosa cells. In granulosa cells, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) activates both cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) cascades, with cAMP pathway being more important for luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) and aromatase (CYP19A1) mRNA expression. We report that 48h after atrazine exposure the FSH-stimulated LHR and CYP19A1 mRNA expression and estradiol synthesis were decreased, with LHR mRNA being more sensitive to atrazine than CYP19A1 mRNA. Inadequate acquisition of LHR in the FSH-stimulated and atrazine-exposed granulosa cells renders human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) ineffective to stimulate amphiregulin (Areg), epiregulin (Ereg), and progesterone receptor (Pgr) mRNA expression, suggesting anti-ovulatory effect of atrazine. To dissect the signaling cascade involved in atrazine action in granulosa cells, we used U0126, a pharmacological inhibitor of ERK1/2. U0126 prevents atrazine-induced decrease in LHR and CYP19A1 mRNA levels and estradiol production in the FSH-stimulated granulosa cells. ERK1/2 inactivation restores the ability of hCG to induce expression of the ovulatory genes in atrazine-exposed granulosa cells. Cell-based ELISA assay revealed that atrazine does not change the FSH-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation in granulosa cells. The results from this study reveal that atrazine does not affect but requires ERK1/2 phosphorylation to cause decrease in the FSH-induced LHR and CYP19A1 mRNA levels and estradiol production in immature granulosa cells, thus compromising ovulation and female fertility.

Atrazine effects on antioxidant status and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes after oral administration in peripubertal male rat.

Previously, we reported that in vivo applied atrazine from postnatal day 23 to 50 induced strong inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate, in the same experimental model, the oxidative status in androgen-producing testicular interstitial compartment characterized by diminished steroidogenesis. In parallel, we determined activities of antioxidative and cytochrome P450 (CYP) xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in liver. To confirm the results on atrazine induced-inhibition of testicular androgenesis, we measured ex vivo production of androgen in Leydig cells. The results revealed decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes, especially glutathione S-transferase (GST), but also glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) in testicular interstitial cells, in parallel with strongly diminished ex vivo basal and agonist-stimulated Leydig cell androgenesis. In liver, atrazine increased the activity of GSH-Px, GST, and CYP1A1/2 enzyme, but not lipid peroxidation. These results indicate that atrazine markedly affects both antioxidant status and androgenesis in peripubertal rats.