Evaluating employability in contexts of change: validation of a scale.

Introduction: Employability is a crucial factor in managing to emerge and changing job demands. This study validates an expanded version of the Employability Appraisal Scale: EAS-60, as an instrument to identify and improve competencies for employability. Method: The EAS-60 was tested in a cross-sectional study in a Spanish population. An exploratory study was carried out using a sample of 188 workers, and the scale's structure was analyzed and confirmed in two Confirmatory Factor Analyses using a sample of 527 workers. Finally, reliability and validity were evaluated. Results: Exploratory and confirmatory analyses provide evidence supporting the multi-dimensional structure. The scale presents good psychometric properties and criteria for interpreting the scores. Discussion: The EAS-60 is a reliable and valid instrument. It allows Human Resource Managers to offer career plans at work that include specific actions of job socialization, training, improvement of specific skills, etc. Furthermore, employees can increase their employability and develop their professional careers.

Development and validation of the Work Envy Appraisal Scale (WEAS) for Spanish workers.

Envy is an important emotion that affects workers' behavior and performance. Instruments to measure envy are available, but new scales are needed for the analysis of work envy that include appraisals of challenge (benign envy) and threat (malicious envy). Based on Lazarus and Folkman's theory, the objective of this study is to develop and validate the Work Envy Appraisal Scale (WEAS) for Spanish workers. It had been carried out in two studies; in the first study, the scale was constructed and its dimensions were analyzed with a sample of 100 Spanish workers (sample 1). In the second study, the scale was validated and its psychometric properties were analyzed (sample 2, N = 219; sample 3, N = 532). The results of exploratory, confirmatory, and multigroup factor analysis showed good indices of fit for the two-factor structure. Moreover, the results showed adequate convergent and discriminant validity. Furthermore, our findings indicated that the scale is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring envy at work. This way of measuring envy at work (discerning its challenge and threat appraisal) makes it possible to find answers to some recurrent research questions (e.g. social desirability issues, the confusion of envy with other topics, etc.) and can facilitate reliable research on envy at work.

Envy in the workplace: a systematic review of the past five years / Inveja no local de trabalho: uma revisão sistemática dos últimos cinco anos / Envidia en el lugar de trabajo: una revisión sistemática de los últimos cinco años

In recent years, interest in studying envy at work has grown. Based on a previous review on envy and jealousy at work, the objective of this paper is to review and systematize the knowledge about this topic provided by empirical research in the past five years. After the search in scientific databases, establishing exclusion and inclusion criteria and literature coding, 32 papers were selected. The results show researchers' growing interest in studying benign envy and its consequences and exploring new variables to explain envy in the workplace. Social comparison theory and cognitive appraisal theory are the two main theoretical frameworks used in the studies reviewed. The role of the leader is essential in envy's appearance, and envy is usually related to dysfunctional results. This study provides researchers with a basis for designing future studies and creating intervention strategies to mitigate envy at work.

Nos últimos anos, cresceu o interesse em estudar a inveja no trabalho. Com base em uma revisão anterior sobre a inveja e o ciúme no trabalho, o objetivo deste artigo é revisar e sistematizar o conhecimento sobre o tema proporcionado por pesquisas empíricas nos últimos cinco anos. Após a busca nas bases de dados científicas, estabelecimento de critérios de exclusão e inclusão e codificação da literatura, foram selecionados 32 artigos. Os resultados mostram o crescente interesse dos pesquisadores em estudar a inveja benigna e suas consequências e explorar novas variáveis ​​para explicar a inveja no local de trabalho. A teoria da comparação social e a teoria da avaliação cognitiva são os dois principais referenciais teóricos usados ​​nos estudos revisados. O papel do líder é essencial no surgimento da inveja, e a inveja geralmente está relacionada a resultados disfuncionais. Este estudo fornece aos pesquisadores uma base para projetar estudos futuros e criar estratégias de intervenção para mitigar a inveja no trabalho.

En los últimos años ha aumentado el interés por estudiar la envidia en el trabajo. A partir de una revisión previa sobre la envidia y los celos en el trabajo, el objetivo de este trabajo es revisar y sistematizar el conocimiento sobre este tema proporcionado por la investigación empírica en los últimos cinco años. Tras la búsqueda en bases de datos científicas, estableciendo criterios de exclusión e inclusión y codificación de la literatura, se seleccionaron 32 artículos. Los resultados muestran el creciente interés de los investigadores por estudiar la envidia benigna y sus consecuencias y explorar nuevas variables para explicar la envidia en el lugar de trabajo. La teoría de la comparación social y la teoría de la evaluación cognitiva son los dos principales marcos teóricos utilizados en los estudios revisados. El papel del líder es esencial en la aparición de la envidia, y la envidia suele estar relacionada con resultados disfuncionales. Este estudio proporciona a los investigadores una base para diseñar estudios futuros y crear estrategias de intervención para mitigar la envidia en el trabajo.

Well-Being without Employment? Promoting the Employability of Refugees.

There are more than 25 million refugees in the world. Many of them try to reach the Mediterranean in order to enter Europe. Spain is one of the countries that receive refugees and have to integrate them. Many refugees have experienced persecution in their countries, as well as forced migration, rape, diseases, etc. Their integration requires support and coordination from the government, health services, and social agents. The first step in achieving this integration is getting a job, which is currently an important issue. Thus, we aim to analyze the employability of a specific group of refugees in Spain and then develop and implement an intervention program to improve their employability. Our framework is based on the Bioecological Model of Employability. The results obtained show that the program is effective in improving employability, and they highlight the importance of labor inclusion for refugees' well-being. Moreover, the findings reveal the need to create labor market policies and further evaluations, diagnostics, and intervention programs that improve employability and other types of personal-community growth. It is necessary to focus on refugees' needs and develop appropriate services.

The Psychometric Structure of the Spanish Language Version of The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure in Spain and Chile.

The present study investigated the structure of the Spanish version of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E), an 11-item measure that assesses individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO), i.e., the extent to which people compare themselves with others. Data came from samples from Spain (n = 1,133) and Chile (n = 2,757). Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Mokken Scale Analyses supported in both samples not the assumed two-factor structure, but a single factor structure, consisting of eight items. The resulting eight-item version of the INCOM-E was reliable in both samples, according the Gutmann's lambda-2 (.82 in Spain and .83 in Chile), and correlated very strongly with the full-length INCOM-E (.93 in Spain and .97 in Chile). In both samples, there were significant sex differences, ps < .001 with small effect sizes, ƞ2 in both samples = .01,but in the Spanish sample women scored higher, and in the Chilean sample men scored higher in SCO. The relationship with age was negative and significant (ps < .001) in both samples, albeit small (r = .22 in Spain and .13 in Chile) Based on the present research, it is advised to use the shortened eight-item version of the INCOM-E in Spanish speaking countries.

The psychometric structure of the Spanish language version of The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure in Spain and Chile

The present study investigated the structure of the Spanish version of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E), an 11-item measure that assesses individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO), i.e., the extent to which people compare themselves with others. Data came from samples from Spain (n = 1,133) and Chile (n = 2,757). Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Mokken Scale Analyses supported in both samples not the assumed two-factor structure, but a single factor structure, consisting of eight items. The resulting eight-item version of the INCOM-E was reliable in both samples, according the Gutmann's lambda-2 (.82 in Spain and .83 in Chile), and correlated very strongly with the full-length INCOM-E (.93 in Spain and .97 in Chile). In both samples, there were significant sex differences, ps < .001 with small effect sizes, ƞ2 in both samples = .01,but in the Spanish sample women scored higher, and in the Chilean sample men scored higher in SCO. The relationship with age was negative and significant (ps < .001) in both samples, albeit small (r = .22 in Spain and .13 in Chile) Based on the present research, it is advised to use the shortened eight-item version of the INCOM-E in Spanish speaking countries

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Culture, Work, and Subjective Well-Being: The Role of LMX and Resilience in Spanish and Chinese Cultures.

Globalization and interdependencies among nations require a better understanding of the influence of culture on organizational processes. In order to succeed in global business, leaders have to respond to practices that may be different in diverse cultures. This study was conducted within the framework of the leader member exchange approach and from a positive perspective of organizations linking successful businesses and workers' well-being. The aim of this study was to examine whether the quality of the relationship with the leader predicts engagement and life satisfaction, and whether resilience moderates this relationship in two different cultural contexts (Spanish and Chinese). The sample was composed of 277 workers (127 Chinese workers corresponding to a vertical-collectivistic culture and 150 Spanish workers representing a horizontal-individualistic culture). To test the hypotheses, a structural equations model (SEM) was conducted using the maximum likelihood (ML) estimation method. Results revealed that leader-member exchange (LMX) positively predicts engagement and life satisfaction and that the moderator role of resilience varies across cultures. Resilience moderated the relationship between LMX and engagement and life satisfaction only in the Spanish sample. In the Chinese sample, resilience only moderated the relation between LMX and life satisfaction. Finally, our study contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between leaders and subordinates operating in a global context.

Employability Appraisal Scale (EAS): Development and Validation in a Spanish Sample.

Employability is an important issue in the labor context. Currently, the European Union presents employability as the path to full employment and active citizenship, and a strategy to reduce unemployment and poverty. This study develops and validates an Employability Appraisal Scale. Specifically, we propose a multidimensional employability scale that analyzes both individual indicators and personal circumstances from the Bioecological Model of Employability. The Employability Appraisal Scale (EAS) assesses personal and social dimensions of employability. It was developed and tested using data from 489 people from a very heterogeneous sample (precarious workers, professionals, prisoners, long-term unemployed, socially excluded, etc.). Results provide evidence for the multi-dimensional structure and validity of the EAS. This scale is a valid and reliable instrument to measure employability, and it provides criteria for interpreting scores. Finally, we present theoretical and practical implications of the EAS for social and labor integration, job transition, and career development. Our findings have positive implications for identifying effectiveness indicators in training programs, and they contribute to designing intervention policies to increase employability.

Envy and Counterproductive Work Behavior: The Moderation Role of Leadership in Public and Private Organizations.

Envy is a frequent emotion in work contexts where there is strong competition for resources and the leader is the person who manages them. When employees feel envy, they are likely to use counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), but the use of these behaviors may differ depending on the organization’s ownership. The goal of this study is to develop and test a model for the moderating role of Leader Member Exchange (LMX) in the relationship between envy and CWB in public and private organizations. The study design was cross-sectional. Data were collected from 225 Spanish employees in public and private organizations and analyzed using Path Analysis techniques. Results showed that envy was positively related to CWB, and that LMX was a significant moderator in the relationship between envy and CWB in public organizations, but not in private ones. However, this relationship is positive with high LMX, but less than in subjects with low LMX. Findings provide empirical support for the hypothesized conceptual model. This study is one of the first to explore LMX as a moderator of the relationship between envy and CWB. Thus, this study adds value to previous social exchange studies on LMX by integrating emotion research into the context of an exchange-based relationship. Our findings lead to several practical implications for creating healthy organizations.

Women's Job Search Competence: A Question of Motivation, Behavior, or Gender.

We examined motivation and behaviors in women's active job search in Spain and the gender gap in this process. The current crisis in Spain and the increase in the number of unemployed people have revealed new inequalities that particularly affect women's employability, especially the most vulnerable women. This paper addresses two exploratory studies: the first study analyzes gender differences in the active job search using a sample of 236 Spanish participants; the second study explores the heterogeneity and diversity of unemployed women in a sample of 235 Spanish women. To analyze the active job search, the respondents were invited to write open-ended responses to questions about their job search behaviors and complete some questionnaires about their motivation for their active job search. The content analysis and quantitative results showed no significant differences in motivational attributes, but there were significant gender differences in the job search behavior (e.g., geographical mobility). Moreover, the results showed heterogeneity in unemployed women by educational level and family responsibilities. The asynchronies observed in a neoliberal context reveal the reproduction of social roles, social-labor vulnerability, and a gender gap. Thus, women's behavior is an interface between employment and family work, but not their motivations or aspirations. Our results can have positive implications for labor gender equality by identifying indicators of effectiveness in training programs for women's job search, and it can contribute to designing intervention empowerment policies for women.

Jealousy at work: The role of rivals' characteristics.

The present study examined rival characteristics that may evoke jealousy in the workplace, differences between men and women in this regard, and the relationship between jealousy responses and intrasexual competitiveness and social comparison orientation. Participants were 426 male and female employees. By means of a questionnaire, participants were presented with a jealousy-evoking scenario after which jealousy responses to 24 rival characteristics were assessed. Findings showed that a rival's social communal attributes evoked highest levels of jealousy, and that, compared to men, women reported more jealousy in response to a rival's physical attractiveness. Overall, as individuals had higher scores on intrasexual competitiveness and social comparison orientation, they also experienced more jealousy in response to their rival, regardless of his or her characteristics. These findings suggest that those characteristics that are highly valued in employees may backfire when employees perceive co-workers as rivals.

Development and validation of the work conflicto appraisal scalet (WCAS) / Desarrollo y validación de la Escala de Valoración del Conflicto (WCAS)

BACKGROUND: In the context of cognitive appraisal, the Work Conflict Appraisal Scale (WCAS) was developed to assess work conflict in terms of threat and challenge. METHOD: In the first study, the factorial structure of the scale was tested using confirmatory factor analysis with a Spanish multi-occupational employee sample (N= 296). In the second study, we used multi-sampling confirmatory factor analysis (N= 815) to cross-validate the results. RESULTS: The analyses confirm the validity of the scale and are con-sistent with the tri-dimensional conflict classification. The findings support the distinction between the challenge and threat appraisals of work conflict, highlighting the importance of measuring these two types of appraisal separately. CONCLUSIONS: This scale is a valid and reliable instrument to measure conflict appraisal in organizations

ANTECEDENTES: en el contexto de la valoración cognitiva se ha desarrollado la escala de Evaluación del Conflicto en el Trabajo (WCAS) que permite evaluar el conflicto en términos de desafío y amenaza. MÉTODO: el Estudio 1 contó con 296 trabajadores con los que se puso a prueba la estructura factorial de la escala usando análisis factorial confirmatorio. En el Estudio 2, con 815 trabajadores, se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio multi-muestra, para la validación cruzada de los resultados. RESULTADOS: los análisis confirman la validez de la escala y son consistentes con la clasificación tridimensional del conflicto, apoyando la distinción entre evaluación del conflicto como desafío y como amenaza. Se subraya la importancia de medir estos dos tipos de valoración separadamente CONCLUSIONES: esta escala es un instrumento válido y fiable para medir la percepción de conflicto en las organizaciones

Development and validation of the Work Conflict Appraisal Scale (WCAS).

BACKGROUND: In the context of cognitive appraisal, the Work Conflict Appraisal Scale (WCAS) was developed to assess work conflict in terms of threat and challenge. METHOD: In the first study, the factorial structure of the scale was tested using confirmatory factor analysis with a Spanish multi-occupational employee sample (N= 296). In the sec-ond study, we used multi-sampling confirmatory factor analysis (N= 815) to cross-validate the results. RESULTS: The analyses confirm the validity of the scale and are con-sistent with the tri-dimensional conflict classification. The findings support the distinc-tion between the challenge and threat appraisals of work conflict, highlighting the im-portance of measuring these two types of appraisal separately. CONCLUSIONS: This scale is a valid and reliable instrument to measure conflict appraisal in organizations.

Los procesos de influencia social en entornos virtuales y su incidencia sobre la eficacia grupal / Social influence processes in virtual environments and their influence on group efficacy

El estudio de la incidencia de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TICs)sobre los procesos de influencia social ha sido el objetivo de diversas investigaciones. En ellas,el papel de estos procesos en la relación entre la modalidad de comunicación y los resultados explogrupalesno queda definido. El objetivo del presente trabajo es clarificar el rol de los procesos de influencia en dicha relación, utilizando dos modalidades de comunicación: videoconferenciay comunicación mediada por ordenador. Para ello, se ha realizado un estudio de laboratorio con 44 grupos distribuidos aleatoriamente entre las dos modalidades de comunicación. Losresultados indican que los procesos de influencia social modulan la relación entre la modalidad de comunicación y la eficacia grupal.

Research has analyzed the effects of Communication and Information Technologies (TICs) on social influence processes in groups. In these studies, it is not clearly defined the role of those processes in the relationship between the communication modality and the results obtained by the groups. The aim of the present study is to clarify the role of social influence processes inthis relationship, considering two communication modalities: videoconference and computermediatedcommunication. A laboratory experiment was carried out with 44 groups randomly assigned to the two communication modalities. The results showed that social influence processes play a moderator role between communication modality and group effectiveness.

La influencia de los procesos de interaccion grupal y el medio de comunicación sobre la eficacia de grupos de trabajo / The influence of group interaction process and the mean of communication on the efficiency of working groups

Diversas investigaciones se han centrado en el análisis de la relación entre el proceso de interacción grupal y la eficacia de los grupos (p.e. Ban y Stewart, 1997; Campion, Medsker y Higgs, 1993). En general, los resultados muestran una relación positiva entre los procesos sinérgicos y la eficacia grupal y una relación negativa entre los procesos disfuncionales y la eficacia grupal. No obstante, existe una importante variabilidad en la magnitud de la relación en los estudios realizados. Ello ha dado lugar al desarrollo de investigaciones en las que se tiene en cuenta el papel modulador de determinadas variables del contexto como el tipo de tarea (Stewart y Barrick, 2000). Otra variable del contexto que puede estar afectando a la relación entre el proceso de interacción y la eficacia de los grupos de trabajo es el medio de comunicación. En este contexto, el objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar el papel modulador del medio de comunicación en la relación entre el proceso de interacción y la eficacia grupal. Se realizó un estudio de laboratorio con 20 grupos de 4 miembros cada uno. Los grupos fueron asignados aleatoriamente a las diferentes condiciones de comunicación (cara a cara y comunicación sincrónica mediada por ordenador). Todos los grupos realizaban dos tipos de tareas (de generación de ideas y de negociación)

El trabajo en grupo en diferentes contextos de comunicación y su evolución a lo largo del tiempo / Teamwork in different communication contexts. A longitudinal study

En la actualidad, la creciente implantación de nuevas tecnologías de la información para el trabajo en grupo en los contextos laborales hace necesario profundizar en el estudio de los procesos y resultados del trabajo en grupo. En este sentido, la investigación realizada hasta el momento ha puesto de manifiesto el impacto diferencial de la comunicación mediada y del tipo de tarea utilizado tanto en aspectos del funcionamiento grupal como de resultados. A pesar de los avances en este ámbito, se observa una escasez de estudios que exploren el funcionamiento de los grupos de trabajo de carácter permanente, probablemente por los elevados costes de estudios longitudinales. En este sentido, los aspectos temporales juegan un importante papel en las conductas mostradas por los miembros durante la interacción grupal y en sus resultados. Desde esta perspectiva, el objetivo del presente trabajo consiste en analizar cómo varía el funcionamiento de los grupos al adaptarse éstos a los distintos medios de comunicación a lo largo del tiempo y en función del tipo de tarea utilizado. Para ello, se ha realizado un experimento de laboratorio en el que han participado 31 grupos de cuatro miembros cada uno. Los grupos han sido asignados aleatoriamente a las diferentes a las diferentes condiciones de comunicación (cara a cara con apoyo electrónico, videoconferencia y correo electrónico). Todos los grupos realizaban distintos tipos de tareas (creatividad, intelectivas y de conflicto) y se reunían en varias ocasiones durante ocho sesiones de trabajo consecutivas (AU)