The microbiota and T cells non-genetically modulate inherited phenotypes transgenerationally.

The host-microbiota relationship has evolved to shape mammalian physiology, including immunity, metabolism, and development. Germ-free models are widely used to study microbial effects on host processes such as immunity. Here, we find that both germ-free and T cell-deficient mice exhibit a robust sebum secretion defect persisting across multiple generations despite microbial colonization and T cell repletion. These phenotypes are inherited by progeny conceived during in vitro fertilization using germ-free sperm and eggs, demonstrating that non-genetic information in the gametes is required for microbial-dependent phenotypic transmission. Accordingly, gene expression in early embryos derived from gametes from germ-free or T cell-deficient mice is strikingly and similarly altered. Our findings demonstrate that microbial- and immune-dependent regulation of non-genetic information in the gametes can transmit inherited phenotypes transgenerationally in mice. This mechanism could rapidly generate phenotypic diversity to enhance host adaptation to environmental perturbations.

Long-term persistence of transcriptionally active 'defective' HIV-1 proviruses: implications for persistent immune activation during antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVES: People with HIV-1 (PWH) on effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) continue to exhibit chronic systemic inflammation, immune activation, and persistent elevations in markers of HIV-1 infection [including HIV-DNA, cell-associated HIV-RNA (CA HIV-RNA), and antibodies to HIV-1 proteins] despite prolonged suppression of plasma HIV-RNA levels less than 50 copies/ml. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that nonreplicating but transcriptionally and translationally competent 'defective' HIV-1 proviruses may be one of drivers of these phenomena. DESIGN: A combined cohort of 23 viremic and virologically suppressed individuals on ART were studied. METHODS: HIV-DNA, CA HIV-RNA, western blot score (measure of anti-HIV-1 antibodies as a surrogate for viral protein expression in vivo ), and key biomarkers of inflammation and coagulation (IL-6, hsCRP, TNF-alpha, tissue factor, and D-dimer) were measured in peripheral blood and analyzed using a combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Sequences of HIV-DNA and CA HIV-RNA obtained via 5'-LTR-to-3'-LTR PCR and single-genome sequencing were also analyzed. RESULTS: We observed similar long-term persistence of multiple, unique, transcriptionally active 'defective' HIV-1 provirus clones (average: 11 years., range: 4-20 years) and antibody responses against HIV-1 viral proteins among all ART-treated participants evaluated. A direct correlation was observed between the magnitude of HIV-1 western blot score and the levels of transcription of 'defective' HIV-1 proviruses ( r  = 0.73, P  < 0.01). Additional correlations were noted between total CD8 + T-cell counts and HIV-DNA ( r  = 0.52, P  = 0.01) or CA HIV-RNA ( r  = 0.65, P  < 0.01). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest a novel interplay between transcription and translation of 'defective' HIV-1 proviruses and the persistent immune activation seen in the setting of treated chronic HIV-1 infection.

The microbiota and immune system non-genetically affect offspring phenotypes transgenerationally.

The host-microbiota relationship has evolved to shape mammalian processes, including immunity, metabolism, and development 1-3 . Host phenotypes change in direct response to microbial exposures by the individual. Here we show that the microbiota induces phenotypic change not only in the individual but also in their succeeding generations of progeny. We found that germ-free mice exhibit a robust sebum secretion defect and transcriptional changes in various organs, persisting across multiple generations despite microbial colonization and breeding with conventional mice. Host-microbe interactions could be involved in this process, since T cell-deficient mice, which display defective sebum secretion 4 , also transgenerationally transmit their phenotype to progeny. These phenotypes are inherited by progeny conceived during in vitro fertilization using germ-free sperm and eggs, demonstrating that epigenetic information in the gametes is required for phenotypic transmission. Accordingly, small non-coding RNAs that can regulate embryonic gene expression 5 were strikingly and similarly altered in gametes of germ-free and T cell-deficient mice. Thus, we have uncovered a novel mechanism whereby the microbiota and immune system induce phenotypic changes in successive generations of offspring. This epigenetic form of inheritance could be advantageous for host adaptation to environmental perturbation, where phenotypic diversity can be introduced more rapidly than by genetic mutation.

IL-27 induces IFN/STAT1-dependent genes and enhances function of TIGIT+ HIVGag-specific T cells.

HIV-specific T cells have diminished effector function and fail to control/eliminate the virus. IL-27, a member of the IL-6/IL-12 cytokine superfamily has been shown to inhibit HIV replication. However, whether or not IL-27 can enhance HIV-specific T cell function is largely unknown. In the present manuscript, we investigated the role of IL-27 signaling in human T cells by evaluating the global transcriptional changes related to the function of HIV-specific T cells. We found that T cells from people living with HIV (PLWH), expressed higher levels of STAT1 leading to enhanced STAT1 activation upon IL-27 stimulation. Observed IL-27 induced transcriptional changes were associated with IFN/STAT1-dependent pathways in CD4 and CD8 T cells. Importantly, IL-27 dependent modulation of T-bet expression promoted IFNγ secretion by TIGIT+HIVGag-specific T cells. This new immunomodulatory effect of IL-27 on HIV-specific T cell function suggests its potential therapeutic use in cure strategies.

Combination rhIL-15 and Anti-PD-L1 (Avelumab) Enhances HIVGag-Specific CD8 T-Cell Function.

In chronic HIV infection, virus-specific cytotoxic CD8 T cells showed expression of checkpoint receptors and impaired function. Therefore, restoration of CD8 T-cell function is critical in cure strategies. Here, we show that in vitro blockade of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) by an anti-PD-L1 antibody (avelumab) in combination with recombinant human interleukin-15 (rhIL-15) synergistically enhanced cytokine secretion by proliferating HIVGag-specific CD8 T cells. In addition, these CD8 T cells have a CXCR3+PD1-/low phenotype, suggesting a potential to traffic into peripheral tissues. In vitro, proliferating CD8 T cells express PD-L1 suggesting that anti-PD-L1 treatment also targets virus-specific CD8 T cells. Together, these data indicate that rhIL-15/avelumab combination therapy could be a useful strategy to enhance CD8 T-cell function in cure strategies.

Attenuation of experimental autoimmune neuritis with locally administered lovastatin-encapsulating poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles.

Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP) is an aggressive antibody- and T-cell-mediated variant of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS), a prominent and debilitating autoimmune disorder of the peripheral nervous system. Despite advancements in clinical management, treatment of patients with AIDP/GBS and its chronic variant CIDP remains palliative and relies on the use of non-specific immunemodulating therapies. Our laboratory has previously reported that therapeutic administration of statins safely attenuates the clinical severity of experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN), a well-characterized animal model of AIDP/GBS, by restricting the migration of autoreactive leukocytes across peripheral nerve microvascular endoneurial endothelial cells that form the blood-nerve barrier. Despite these advancements, the clinical application of systemically administered statins for the management of inflammatory disorders remains controversial as a result of disappointingly inconclusive phase trials. Here, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles were evaluated as an alternative strategy by which to locally administer statins for the management of EAN. When tested in vitro, lovastatin-encapsulating PLGA nanoparticles elicited a marked increase in RhoB mRNA content in peripheral nerve microvascular endoneurial endothelial cells, similar to cells treated with activated unencapsulated lovastatin. Unilateral peri-neural administration of lovastatin-encapsulating PLGA nanoparticles, but not empty nanoparticles, to naïve Lewis rats similarly enhanced RhoB mRNA content in adjacent nerve and muscle tissue. When administered in this manner, serum levels of lovastatin were below the level of detection. Bilateral peri-neural administration of lovastatin-encapsulating PLGA nanoparticles to EAN-induced Lewis rats significantly attenuated EAN clinical severity while protecting against EAN-induced peripheral nerve morphological and functional deficits. This study provides the first proof-of-concept approach for the application of a nanoparticle-based local drug delivery platform for the management of inflammatory demyelinating diseases, including AIDP/GBS.