Low-density hepatitis C virus infectious particles are protected from oxidation by secreted cellular proteins.

IMPORTANCE: Assessments of viral stability on surfaces or in body fluids under different environmental conditions and/or temperatures are often performed, as they are key to understanding the routes and parameters of viral transmission and to providing clues on the epidemiology of infections. However, for most viruses, the mechanisms of inactivation vs stability of viral particles remain poorly defined. Although they are structurally diverse, with different compositions, sizes, and shapes, enveloped viruses are generally less stable than non-enveloped viruses, pointing out the role of envelopes themselves in virus lability. In this report, we investigated the properties of hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles with regards to their stability. We found that, compared to alternative enveloped viruses such as Dengue virus (DENV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis delta virus (HDV), and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) that infect the liver, HCV particles are intrinsically labile. We determined the mechanisms that drastically alter their specific infectivity through oxidation of their lipids, and we highlighted that they are protected from lipid oxidation by secreted cellular proteins, which can protect their membrane fusion capacity and overall infectivity.

HCV Interplay with Lipoproteins: Inside or Outside the Cells?

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major public health issue leading to chronic liver diseases. HCV particles are unique owing to their particular lipid composition, namely the incorporation of neutral lipids and apolipoproteins. The mechanism of association between HCV virion components and these lipoproteins factors remains poorly understood as well as its impact in subsequent steps of the viral life cycle, such as entry into cells. It was proposed that the lipoprotein biogenesis pathway is involved in HCV morphogenesis; yet, recent evidence indicated that HCV particles can mature and evolve biochemically in the extracellular medium after egress. In addition, several viral, cellular and blood components have been shown to influence and regulate this specific association. Finally, this specific structure and composition of HCV particles was found to influence entry into cells as well as their stability and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. Due to its specific particle composition, studying the association of HCV particles with lipoproteins remains an important goal towards the rational design of a protective vaccine.

A serum protein factor mediates maturation and apoB-association of HCV particles in the extracellular milieu.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: In the sera of infected patients, hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles display heterogeneous forms with low-buoyant densities (<1.08), underscoring their lipidation via association with apoB-containing lipoproteins, which was proposed to occur during assembly or secretion from infected hepatocytes. However, the mechanisms inducing this association remain poorly-defined and most cell culture grown HCV (HCVcc) particles exhibit higher density (>1.08) and poor/no association with apoB. We aimed to elucidate the mechanisms of lipidation and to produce HCVcc particles resembling those in infected sera. METHODS: We produced HCVcc particles of Jc1 or H77 strains from Huh-7.5 hepatoma cells cultured in standard conditions (10%-fetal calf serum) vs. in serum-free or human serum conditions before comparing their density profiles to patient-derived virus. We also characterized wild-type and Jc1/H77 hypervariable region 1 (HVR1)-swapped mutant HCVcc particles produced in serum-free media and incubated with different serum types or with purified lipoproteins. RESULTS: Compared to serum-free or fetal calf serum conditions, production with human serum redistributed most HCVcc infectious particles to low density (<1.08) or very-low density (<1.04) ranges. In addition, short-time incubation with human serum was sufficient to shift HCVcc physical particles to low-density fractions, in time- and dose-dependent manners, which increased their specific infectivity, promoted apoB-association and induced neutralization-resistance. Moreover, compared to Jc1, we detected higher levels of H77 HCVcc infectious particles in very-low-density fractions, which could unambiguously be attributed to strain-specific features of the HVR1 sequence. Finally, all 3 lipoprotein classes, i.e., very-low-density, low-density and high-density lipoproteins, could synergistically induce low-density shift of HCV particles; yet, this required additional non-lipid serum factor(s) that include albumin. CONCLUSIONS: The association of HCV particles with lipids may occur in the extracellular milieu. The lipidation level depends on serum composition as well as on HVR1-specific properties. These simple culture conditions allow production of infectious HCV particles resembling those of chronically-infected patients. LAY SUMMARY: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles may associate with apoB and acquire neutral lipids after exiting cells, giving them low-buoyant density. The hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) is a majorviral determinant of E2 that controls this process. Besides lipoproteins, specific serum factors including albumin promote extracellular maturation of HCV virions. HCV particle production in vitro, with media of defined serum conditions, enables production of infectious particles resembling those of chronically infected patients.

Infection of Human Liver Myofibroblasts by Hepatitis C Virus: A Direct Mechanism of Liver Fibrosis in Hepatitis C.

BACKGROUND: Chronic hepatitis C is a major cause of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. It is generally accepted that inflammation that occurs in response to hepatocyte infection by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the main mechanism that triggers myofibroblast differentiation and stimulation in chronic hepatitis C. The aim of this study was to determine if HCV might infect human liver myofibroblasts (HLMF) and directly stimulate their fibrogenic activities. METHODS: We evaluated the expression of the viral entry receptors, levels of HCV-RNA and HCV-protein and the expression of fibrosis markers in HLMF by using quantitative PCR, western blot and immunofluorescence analyses. Pseudoparticles (HCVpp) and cell culture-derived HCV (HCVcc) were used to study the ability of HLMF to support viral entry, replication and fibrosis induction. RESULTS: We showed that HLMF expressed all known molecules of the HCV receptor complex, i.e. CD81, LDL-R, scavenger receptor-BI, claudin-1 and occludin. These cells were also permissive to HCVpp entry. Inoculation with HCVcc caused short-term infection of these cells, as shown by their content in positive- and negative-strand HCV RNA, in core and NS3 viral proteins, and by their release of core protein levels in the culture supernatants. HCV infection stimulated myofibroblastic differentiation, proliferation and collagen production in these cells. In addition, evidence of in vivo infection was provided by the detection of positive- and negative-strand HCV RNA in preparations of HLMF obtained from HCV-infected patients. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that HCV infection of HLMF can occur and trigger extracellular matrix overproduction, thereby contributing to the development of HCV-related liver fibrosis.

Functional and Biochemical Characterization of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Particles Produced in a Humanized Liver Mouse Model.

Lipoprotein components are crucial factors for hepatitis C virus (HCV) assembly and entry. As hepatoma cells producing cell culture-derived HCV (HCVcc) particles are impaired in some aspects of lipoprotein metabolism, it is of upmost interest to biochemically and functionally characterize the in vivo produced viral particles, particularly regarding how lipoprotein components modulate HCV entry by lipid transfer receptors such as scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI). Sera from HCVcc-infected liver humanized FRG mice were separated by density gradients. Viral subpopulations, termed HCVfrg particles, were characterized for their physical properties, apolipoprotein association, and infectivity. We demonstrate that, in contrast to the widely spread distribution of apolipoproteins across the different HCVcc subpopulations, the most infectious HCVfrg particles are highly enriched in apoE, suggesting that such apolipoprotein enrichment plays a role for entry of in vivo derived infectious particles likely via usage of apolipoprotein receptors. Consistent with this salient feature, we further reveal previously undefined functionalities of SR-BI in promoting entry of in vivo produced HCV. First, unlike HCVcc, SR-BI is a particularly limiting factor for entry of HCVfrg subpopulations of very low density. Second, HCVfrg entry involves SR-BI lipid transfer activity but not its capacity to bind to the viral glycoprotein E2. In conclusion, we demonstrate that composition and biophysical properties of the different subpopulations of in vivo produced HCVfrg particles modulate their levels of infectivity and receptor usage, hereby featuring divergences with in vitro produced HCVcc particles and highlighting the powerfulness of this in vivo model for the functional study of the interplay between HCV and liver components.

Virus-like particle vaccine induces cross-protection against human metapneumovirus infections in mice.

Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a paramyxovirus that causes acute respiratory-tract infections in children and adults worldwide. A safe and effective vaccine could decrease the burden of disease associated with this novel pathogen. We engineered HMPV viral-like particles (HMPV-VLPs) derived from retroviral core particles that mimic the properties of the viral surface of two HMPV viruses of either lineage A or B. These VLPs functionally display F and G HMPV surface glycoproteins. When injected in mice, HMPV-VLPs induce strong humoral immune response against both homologous and heterologous strains. Moreover, the induced neutralizing antibodies prevented mortality upon subsequent infection of the lungs with both homologous and heterologous viruses. Upon challenge, viral titers in the lungs of immunized animals were significantly reduced as compared to those of control animals. In conclusion, a HMPV-VLP vaccine that induces cross-protective immunity in mice is a promising approach to prevent HMPV infections.

Characterization of hepatitis C virus particle subpopulations reveals multiple usage of the scavenger receptor BI for entry steps.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles assemble along the very low density lipoprotein pathway and are released from hepatocytes as entities varying in their degree of lipid and apolipoprotein (apo) association as well as buoyant densities. Little is known about the cell entry pathway of these different HCV particle subpopulations, which likely occurs by regulated spatiotemporal processes involving several cell surface molecules. One of these molecules is the scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), a receptor for high density lipoprotein that can bind to the HCV glycoprotein E2. By studying the entry properties of infectious virus subpopulations differing in their buoyant densities, we show that these HCV particles utilize SR-BI in a manifold manner. First, SR-BI mediates primary attachment of HCV particles of intermediate density to cells. These initial interactions involve apolipoproteins, such as apolipoprotein E, present on the surface of HCV particles, but not the E2 glycoprotein, suggesting that lipoprotein components in the virion act as host-derived ligands for important entry factors such as SR-BI. Second, we found that in contrast to this initial attachment, SR-BI mediates entry of HCV particles independent of their buoyant density. This function of SR-BI does not depend on E2/SR-BI interaction but relies on the lipid transfer activity of SR-BI, probably by facilitating entry steps along with other HCV entry co-factors. Finally, our results underscore a third function of SR-BI governed by specific residues in hypervariable region 1 of E2 leading to enhanced cell entry and depending on SR-BI ability to bind to E2.

Clearance of genotype 1b hepatitis C virus in chimpanzees in the presence of vaccine-induced E1-neutralizing antibodies.

Accumulating evidence indicates that neutralizing antibodies play an important role in protection from chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Efforts to elicit such responses by immunization with intact heterodimeric E1E2 envelope proteins have met with limited success. To determine whether antigenic sites, which are not exposed by the combined E1E2 heterodimer structure, are capable of eliciting neutralizing antibody responses, we expressed and purified each as separate recombinant proteins E1 and E2, from which the immunodominant hypervariable region (HVR-1) was deleted. Immunization of chimpanzees with either E1 or E2 alone induced antigen-specific T-helper cytokines of similar magnitude. Unexpectedly, the capacity to neutralize HCV was observed in E1 but not in animals immunized with E2 devoid of HVR-1. Furthermore, in vivo only E1-vaccinated animals exposed to the heterologous HCV-1b inoculum cleared HCV infection.

An acidic cluster of the cytoplasmic tail of the RD114 virus glycoprotein controls assembly of retroviral envelopes.

Retroviral core proteins, Gag and envelope (Env) glycoproteins are expressed from distinct cellular areas and therefore need to encounter to assemble infectious particles. The intrinsic cell localisation properties of either viral component or their capacity to mutually interact determines the assembly of infectious particles. Here, we address how Env determinants and cellular sorting proteins allow the Env derived from gamma retroviruses, murine leukemia virus (MLV) and RD114, to travel to or from late endosomes (LE), which may represent the Env assembly site of retroviruses in some cells. The individual expression of MLV Env resulted in its accumulation in LE in contrast to RD114 Env that required the presence of gamma retroviral Gag proteins. To discriminate between intrinsic intracellular Env localisation and gamma retroviral Gag/Env interactions in influencing Env viral incorporation, we studied Env assembly on heterologous lentiviral particles on which they are passively recruited. We found that an acidic cluster present at the C-terminus of the RD114 Env cytoplasmic tail determines its sub-cellular localisation and retrograde transport. Mutation of this motif induced late endosomal concentration of the RD114 Env, correlating with increased viral incorporation and infectivity. Reciprocally, the reinforcement of a poorly functional acidic motif in the MLV Env resulted in a marked decrease of its late endosomal localisation, leading to weakly infectious lentiviral particles with low Env densities. Finally, through upregulation versus downregulation of its cellular expression, we show that phosphofurin acidic-cluster-sorting protein 1 (PACS-1) controls the function of the RD114 Env acidic cluster, assigning to this cellular effector a crucial role in modulation of Env assembly of some retroviruses.

High density lipoprotein inhibits hepatitis C virus-neutralizing antibodies by stimulating cell entry via activation of the scavenger receptor BI.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) exploits serum-dependent mechanisms that inhibit neutralizing antibodies. Here we demonstrate that high density lipoprotein (HDL) is a key serum factor that attenuates neutralization by monoclonal and HCV patient-derived polyclonal antibodies of infectious pseudo-particles (HCVpp) harboring authentic E1E2 glycoproteins and cell culture-grown genuine HCV (HCVcc). Over 10-fold higher antibody concentrations are required to neutralize either HCV-enveloped particles in the presence of HDL or human serum, and less than 3-5-fold reduction of infectious titers are obtained at saturating antibody concentrations, in contrast to complete inhibition in serum-free conditions. We show that HDL interaction with the scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), a proposed cell entry co-factor of HCV and a receptor mediating lipid transfer with HDL, strongly reduces neutralization of HCVpp and HCVcc. We found that HDL activation of target cells strongly stimulates cell entry of viral particles by accelerating their endocytosis, thereby suppressing a 1-h time lag during which cell-bound virions are not internalized and can be targeted by antibodies. Compounds that inhibit lipid transfer functions of SR-BI fully restore neutralization by antibodies in human serum. We demonstrate that this functional HDL/SR-BI interaction only interferes with antibodies blocking HCV-E2 binding to CD81, a major HCV receptor, reflecting its prominent role during the cell entry process. Moreover, we identify monoclonal antibodies targeted to epitopes in the E1E2 complex that are not inhibited by HDL. Consistently, we show that antibodies targeted to HCV-E1 efficiently neutralize HCVpp and HCVcc in the presence of human serum.

Assembly of functional hepatitis C virus glycoproteins on infectious pseudoparticles occurs intracellularly and requires concomitant incorporation of E1 and E2 glycoproteins.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) E1 and E2 envelope glycoproteins (GPs) displayed on retroviral cores (HCVpp) are a powerful and highly versatile model system to investigate wild-type HCV entry. To further characterize this model system, the cellular site of HCVpp assembly and the respective roles of the HCV GPs in this process were investigated. By using a combination of biochemical methods with confocal and electron microscopic techniques, it was shown that, in cells producing HCVpp, both E1 and E2 colocalized with retroviral core proteins intracellularly, presumably in multivesicular bodies, but not at the cell surface. When E1 and E2 were expressed individually with retroviral core proteins, only E2 colocalized with and was incorporated on retroviral cores. Conversely, the colocalization of E1 with retroviral core proteins and its efficient incorporation occurred only upon co-expression of E2. Moreover, HCVpp infectivity correlated strictly with the presence of both E1 and E2 on retroviral cores. Altogether, these results confirm that the E1E2 heterodimer constitutes the prebudding form of functional HCV GPs and, more specifically, show that dimerization with E2 is a prerequisite for efficient E1 incorporation onto particles.

Neutralizing antibodies to hepatitis C virus (HCV) in immune globulins derived from anti-HCV-positive plasma.

The role of humoral immunity in hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections is uncertain. Nevertheless, there is increasing evidence for neutralizing antibodies to HCV in the serum or plasma of chronically infected individuals. Immune globulins prepared by ethanol fractionation of plasma had long been considered safe until a commercial immune globulin product, Gammagard, prepared from plasma from which units containing anti-HCV had been excluded, transmitted HCV to recipients. Studies suggested that the exclusion might have removed neutralizing antibodies from the plasma and hence compromised the safety of the resulting immune globulins. In the present study, by using chimpanzees and a recently validated in vitro system based on neutralization of infectious HCV pseudoparticles, we found broadly reactive neutralizing and protective antibodies in experimental immune globulin preparations made from anti-HCV-positive donations. Neutralizing antibodies were also found in Gammagard lots made from unscreened plasma that did not transmit hepatitis C but not in Gammagard lots, which were prepared from anti-HCV-screened plasma, that did transmit hepatitis C. The results provide an explanation for the mechanism by which the safety of this product was compromised. Immune globulins made from anti-HCV-positive plasma and containing broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies may provide a method of preventing HCV infection.

In vitro assay for neutralizing antibody to hepatitis C virus: evidence for broadly conserved neutralization epitopes.

Our understanding of the humoral immune response to hepatitis C virus (HCV) is limited because the virus can be studied only in humans and chimpanzees and because previously described neutralization assays have not been robust or simple to perform. Nevertheless, epidemiologic and laboratory studies suggested that neutralizing Ab to HCV might be important in preventing infection. We have recently described a neutralization assay based on the neutralization of pseudotyped murine retrovirus constructs bearing HCV envelope glycoproteins on their surface. We have applied the assay to well characterized clinical samples from HCV-infected patients and chimpanzees, confirmed the existence of neutralizing Ab to HCV, and validated most previously reported neutralizations of the virus. We did not find neutralizing anti-HCV in resolving infections but did find relatively high titers (>1:320) of such Ab in chronic infections. Neutralizing Ab was directed not only to epitope(s) in the hypervariable region of the E2 envelope protein but also to one or more epitopes elsewhere in the envelope of the virus. Neutralizing Ab was broadly reactive and could neutralize pseudotype particles bearing the envelope glycoproteins of two different subgenotypes (1a and 1b). The ability to assay neutralizing anti-HCV should permit an assessment of the prospects for successful Ab-mediated passive and active immunoprophylaxis against hepatitis C.

Cell entry of hepatitis C virus requires a set of co-receptors that include the CD81 tetraspanin and the SR-B1 scavenger receptor.

Several cell surface molecules have been proposed as receptor candidates, mediating cell entry of hepatitis C virus (HCV) on the basis of their physical association with virions or with soluble HCV E2 glycoproteins. However, due to the lack of infectious HCV particles, evidence that these receptor candidates support infection was missing. Using our recently described infectious HCV pseudotype particles (HCVpp) that display functional E1E2 glycoprotein complexes, here we show that HCV is a pH-dependent virus, implying that its receptor component(s) mediate virion internalization by endocytosis. Expression of the CD81 tetraspanin in non-permissive CD81-negative hepato-carcinoma cells was sufficient to restore susceptibility to HCVpp infection, confirming its critical role as a cell attachment factor. As a cell surface molecule likely to mediate endosomal trafficking, we demonstrate that the human scavenger receptor class B type 1 (SR-B1), a high-density lipoprotein-internalization molecule that we previously proposed as a novel HCV receptor candidate due to its affinity with E2 glycoproteins, is required for infection of CD81-expressing hepatic cells. By receptor competition assays, we found that SR-B1 antibodies that blocked binding of soluble E2 could prevent HCVpp infectivity. Furthermore, we establish that the hyper-variable region 1 of the HCV E2 glycoprotein is a critical determinant mediating entry in SR-B1-positive cells. Finally, by correlating expression of HCV receptors and infectivity, we suggest that, besides CD81 and SR-B1, additional hepatocyte-specific co-factor(s) are necessary for HCV entry.

Null mutation of DNA strand break-binding molecule poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase causes medulloblastomas in p53(-/-) mice.

Medulloblastoma is an invasive embryonal tumor of the cerebellum with predominant neuronal differentiation. Although several genes have been implicated in medulloblasoma formation, such as Patched (Ptc1) and the adenomatous polyposis coli gene (Apc), the majority of these tumors cannot be explained by mutations in these genes. The cellular origin as well as the genetic and molecular changes involved in the genesis and progression of human medulloblastomas remain largely unknown. Here we show that disruption of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP-1) causes a high incidence (49%) of aggressive brain tumors in p53 null mice, with typical features of human cerebellar medulloblastomas. At as early as 8 weeks of age, lesions started on the outer surface of the cerebellum from remnant granule cell precursors of the developmental external germinal layer. Progression of these tumors is associated with the re-activation of the neuronal specific transcription factor Math1, dysregulation of Shh/Ptc1 signaling pathway, and chromosomal aberrations, including triradial and quadriradial chromosomes. The present study indicates that the loss of function of DNA double-strand break-sensing and repair molecules is an etiological factor in the evolution of the cerebellar medulloblastomas. These PARP-1/p53 double null mice represent a novel model for the pathogenesis of human medulloblastomas.