Assessing the Impact of Non-Exhaust Emissions on the Asthmatic Airway (IONA) Protocol for a Randomised Three-Exposure Crossover Study.

BACKGROUND: People living with asthma are disproportionately affected by air pollution, with increased symptoms, medication usage, hospital admissions, and the risk of death. To date, there has been a focus on exhaust emissions, but traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) can also arise from the mechanical abrasion of tyres, brakes, and road surfaces. We therefore created a study with the aim of investigating the acute impacts of non-exhaust emissions (NEEs) on the lung function and airway immune status of asthmatic adults. METHODS: A randomised three-condition crossover panel design will expose adults with asthma using a 2.5 h intermittent cycling protocol in a random order at three locations in London, selected to provide the greatest contrast in the NEE components within TRAP. Lung function will be monitored using oscillometry, fractional exhaled nitric oxide, and spirometry (the primary outcome is the forced expiratory volume in one second). Biomarkers of inflammation and airborne metal exposure will be measured in the upper airway using nasal lavage. Symptom responses will be monitored using questionnaires. Sources of exhaust and non-exhaust concentrations will be established using source apportionment via the positive matrix factorisation of high-time resolution chemical measures conducted at the exposure sites. DISCUSSION: Collectively, this study will provide us with valuable information on the health effects of NEE components within ambient PM2.5 and PM10, whilst establishing a biological mechanism to help contextualise current epidemiological observations.

PM10-bound trace elements in pan-European urban atmosphere.

Although many studies have discussed the impact of Europe's air quality, very limited research focused on the detailed phenomenology of ambient trace elements (TEs) in PM10 in urban atmosphere. This study compiled long-term (2013-2022) measurements of speciation of ambient urban PM10 from 55 sites of 7 countries (Switzerland, Spain, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, UK), aiming to elucidate the phenomenology of 20 TEs in PM10 in urban Europe. The monitoring sites comprised urban background (UB, n = 26), traffic (TR, n = 10), industrial (IN, n = 5), suburban background (SUB, n = 7), and rural background (RB, n = 7) types. The sampling campaigns were conducted using standardized protocols to ensure data comparability. In each country, PM10 samples were collected over a fixed period using high-volume air samplers. The analysis encompassed the spatio-temporal distribution of TEs, and relationships between TEs at each site. Results indicated an annual average for the sum of 20 TEs of 90 ± 65 ng/m3, with TR and IN sites exhibiting the highest concentrations (130 ± 66 and 131 ± 80 ng/m3, respectively). Seasonal variability in TEs concentrations, influenced by emission sources and meteorology, revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) across all monitoring sites. Estimation of TE concentrations highlighted distinct ratios between non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic metals, with Zn (40 ± 49 ng/m3), Ti (21 ± 29 ng/m3), and Cu (23 ± 35 ng/m3) dominating non-carcinogenic TEs, while Cr (5 ± 7 ng/m3), and Ni (2 ± 6 ng/m3) were prominent among carcinogenic ones. Correlations between TEs across diverse locations and seasons varied, in agreement with differences in emission sources and meteorological conditions. This study provides valuable insights into TEs in pan-European urban atmosphere, contributing to a comprehensive dataset for future environmental protection policies.

Indoor air quality in subway microenvironments: Pollutant characteristics, adverse health impacts, and population inequity.

Rapidly increasing urbanization in recent decades has elevated the subway as the primary public transportation mode in metropolitan areas. Indoor air quality (IAQ) inside subways is an important factor that influences the health of commuters and subway workers. This review discusses the subway IAQ in different cities worldwide by comparing the sources and abundance of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) in these environments. Factors that affect PM concentration and chemical composition were found to be associated with the subway internal structure, train frequency, passenger volume, and geographical location. Special attention was paid to air pollutants, such as transition metals, volatile/semi-volatile organic compounds (VOCs and SVOCs), and bioaerosols, due to their potential roles in indoor chemistry and causing adverse health impacts. In addition, given that the IAQ of subway systems is a public health issue worldwide, we calculated the Gini coefficient of urban subway exposure via meta-analysis. A value of 0.56 showed a significant inequity among different cities. Developed regions with higher per capita income tend to have higher exposure. By reviewing the current advances and challenges in subway IAQ with a focus on indoor chemistry and health impacts, future research is proposed toward a sustainable urban transportation systems.

Multiomic Signatures of Traffic-Related Air Pollution in London Reveal Potential Short-Term Perturbations in Gut Microbiome-Related Pathways.

This randomized crossover study investigated the metabolic and mRNA alterations associated with exposure to high and low traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) in 50 participants who were either healthy or were diagnosed with chronic pulmonary obstructive disease (COPD) or ischemic heart disease (IHD). For the first time, this study combined transcriptomics and serum metabolomics measured in the same participants over multiple time points (2 h before, and 2 and 24 h after exposure) and over two contrasted exposure regimes to identify potential multiomic modifications linked to TRAP exposure. With a multivariate normal model, we identified 78 metabolic features and 53 mRNA features associated with at least one TRAP exposure. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emerged as the dominant pollutant, with 67 unique associated metabolomic features. Pathway analysis and annotation of metabolic features consistently indicated perturbations in the tryptophan metabolism associated with NO2 exposure, particularly in the gut-microbiome-associated indole pathway. Conditional multiomics networks revealed complex and intricate mechanisms associated with TRAP exposure, with some effects persisting 24 h after exposure. Our findings indicate that exposure to TRAP can alter important physiological mechanisms even after a short-term exposure of a 2 h walk. We describe for the first time a potential link between NO2 exposure and perturbation of the microbiome-related pathways.

Air quality on UK diesel and hybrid trains.

Concentrations of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), ultrafine (UFP), particle number (PNC), black carbon (BC), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) were measured in train carriages on diesel and bi-mode trains on inter-city and long-distance journeys in the United Kingdom (UK) using a high-quality mobile measurement system. Air quality on 15 different routes was measured using highly-time resolved data on a total of 119 journeys during three campaigns in winter 2020 and summer 2021; this included 13 different train classes. Each journey was sampled 4-10 times with approximatively 11,000 min of in-train concentrations in total. Mean-journey concentrations were 7.552 µg m-3 (PM10); 3.936 µg m-3 (PM2.5); 333-11,300 # cm-3 (PNC); 225-9,131 # cm-3 (UFP); 0.6-11 µg m-3 (BC); 28-201 µg m-3 (NO2); and 130-3,456 µg m-3 (NOX). The impact of different factors on in-train concentrations was evaluated. The presence of tunnels was the factor with the largest impact on the in-train particle concentrations with enhancements by a factor of 40 greater than baseline for BC, and a factor 6 to 7 for PM and PNC. The engine fuel mode was the factor with the largest impact on NO2 with enhancements of up to 14-times larger when the train run on diesel compared to the times running on electric on hybrid trains. Train classes with an age < 10 years observed the lowest in-train PM, BC and NOX concentrations reflecting improvements in aspects of rail technology in recent years. Air quality on UK diesel trains is higher than ambient concentrations but has lower PM2.5 and PNC than most other transport modes, including subway systems, diesel and petrol cars. This paper adds significantly to the evidence on exposure to poor air quality in transport micro-environments and provides the industry and regulatory bodies with reference-grade measurements on which to establish in-train air quality guidelines.

Inter-annual trends of ultrafine particles in urban Europe.

Ultrafine particles (UFP, those with diameters ≤ 100 nm), have been reported to potentially penetrate deeply into the respiratory system, translocate through the alveoli, and affect various organs, potentially correlating with increased mortality. The aim of this study is to assess long-term trends (5-11 years) in mostly urban UFP concentrations based on measurements of particle number size distributions (PNSD). Additionally, concentrations of other pollutants and meteorological variables were evaluated to support the interpretations. PNSD datasets from 12 urban background (UB), 5 traffic (TR), 3 suburban background (SUB) and 1 regional background (RB) sites in 15 European cities and 1 in the USA were evaluated. The non-parametric Theil-Sen's method was used to detect monotonic trends. Meta-analyses were carried out to assess the overall trends and those for different environments. The results showed significant decreases in NO, NO2, BC, CO, and particle concentrations in the Aitken (25-100 nm) and the Accumulation (100-800 nm) modes, suggesting a positive impact of the implementation of EURO 5/V and 6/VI vehicle standards on European air quality. The growing use of Diesel Particle Filters (DPFs) might also have clearly reduced exhaust emissions of BC, PM, and the Aitken and Accumulation mode particles. However, as reported by prior studies, there remains an issue of poor control of Nucleation mode particles (smaller than 25 nm), which are not fully reduced with current DPFs, without emission controls for semi-volatile organic compounds, and might have different origins than road traffic. Thus, contrasting trends for Nucleation mode particles were obtained across the cities studied. This mode also affected the UFP and total PNC trends because of the high proportion of Nucleation mode particles in both concentration ranges. It was also found that the urban temperature increasing trends might have also influenced those of PNC, Nucleation and Aitken modes.

Variability of ambient air ammonia in urban Europe (Finland, France, Italy, Spain, and the UK).

This study addressed the scarcity of NH3 measurements in urban Europe and the diverse monitoring protocols, hindering direct data comparison. Sixty-nine datasets from Finland, France, Italy, Spain, and the UK across various site types, including industrial (IND, 8), traffic (TR, 12), urban (UB, 22), suburban (SUB, 12), and regional background (RB, 15), are analyzed to this study. Among these, 26 sites provided 5, or more, years of data for time series analysis. Despite varied protocols, necessitating future harmonization, the average NH3 concentration across sites reached 8.0 ± 8.9 µg/m3. Excluding farming/agricultural hotspots (FAHs), IND and TR sites had the highest concentrations (4.7 ± 3.2 and 4.5 ± 1.0 µg/m3), followed by UB, SUB, and RB sites (3.3 ± 1.5, 2.7 ± 1.3, and 1.0 ± 0.3 µg/m3, respectively) indicating that industrial, traffic, and other urban sources were primary contributors to NH3 outside FAH regions. When referring exclusively to the FAHs, concentrations ranged from 10.0 ± 2.3 to 15.6 ± 17.2 µg/m3, with the highest concentrations being reached in RB sites close to the farming and agricultural sources, and that, on average for FAHs there is a decreasing NH3 concentration gradient towards the city. Time trends showed that over half of the sites (18/26) observed statistically significant trends. Approximately 50 % of UB and TR sites showed a decreasing trend, while 30 % an increasing one. Meta-analysis revealed a small insignificant decreasing trend for non-FAH RB sites. In FAHs, there was a significant upward trend at a rate of 3.51[0.45,6.57]%/yr. Seasonal patterns of NH3 concentrations varied, with urban areas experiencing fluctuations influenced by surrounding emissions, particularly in FAHs. Diel variation showed differing patterns at urban monitoring sites, all with higher daytime concentrations, but with variations in peak times depending on major emission sources and meteorological patterns. These results offer valuable insights into the spatio-temporal patterns of gas-phase NH3 concentrations in urban Europe, contributing to future efforts in benchmarking NH3 pollution control in urban areas.

Recommendations for reporting equivalent black carbon (eBC) mass concentrations based on long-term pan-European in-situ observations.

A reliable determination of equivalent black carbon (eBC) mass concentrations derived from filter absorption photometers (FAPs) measurements depends on the appropriate quantification of the mass absorption cross-section (MAC) for converting the absorption coefficient (babs) to eBC. This study investigates the spatial-temporal variability of the MAC obtained from simultaneous elemental carbon (EC) and babs measurements performed at 22 sites. We compared different methodologies for retrieving eBC integrating different options for calculating MAC including: locally derived, median value calculated from 22 sites, and site-specific rolling MAC. The eBC concentrations that underwent correction using these methods were identified as LeBC (local MAC), MeBC (median MAC), and ReBC (Rolling MAC) respectively. Pronounced differences (up to more than 50 %) were observed between eBC as directly provided by FAPs (NeBC; Nominal instrumental MAC) and ReBC due to the differences observed between the experimental and nominal MAC values. The median MAC was 7.8 ± 3.4 m2 g-1 from 12 aethalometers at 880 nm, and 10.6 ± 4.7 m2 g-1 from 10 MAAPs at 637 nm. The experimental MAC showed significant site and seasonal dependencies, with heterogeneous patterns between summer and winter in different regions. In addition, long-term trend analysis revealed statistically significant (s.s.) decreasing trends in EC. Interestingly, we showed that the corresponding corrected eBC trends are not independent of the way eBC is calculated due to the variability of MAC. NeBC and EC decreasing trends were consistent at sites with no significant trend in experimental MAC. Conversely, where MAC showed s.s. trend, the NeBC and EC trends were not consistent while ReBC concentration followed the same pattern as EC. These results underscore the importance of accounting for MAC variations when deriving eBC measurements from FAPs and emphasize the necessity of incorporating EC observations to constrain the uncertainty associated with eBC.

Occupational exposure to particulate matter and staff sickness absence on the London underground.

The London Underground (LU) employs over 19,000 staff, some of whom are exposed to elevated concentrations of particulate matter (PM) within the network. This study quantified the occupational exposure of LU staff to subway PM and investigated the possible association with sickness absence (SA). A job exposure matrix to quantify subway PM2.5 staff exposure was developed by undertaking measurement campaigns across the LU network. The association between exposure and SA was evaluated using zero-inflated mixed-effects negative binomial models. Staff PM2.5 exposure varied by job grade and tasks undertaken. Drivers had the highest exposure over a work shift (mean: 261 µg/m3), but concentrations varied significantly by LU line and time the train spent subway. Office staff work in office buildings separate to the LU network and are unexposed to occupational subway PM2.5. They were found to have lower rates of all-cause and respiratory infection SA compared to non-office staff, those who work across the LU network and are occupational exposed to subway PM2.5. Train drivers on five out of eight lines showed higher rates of all-cause SA, but no dose-response relationship was seen. Only drivers from one line showed higher rates of SAs from respiratory infections (incidence rate ratio: 1.24, 95% confidence interval 1.10-1.39). Lower-grade customer service (CS) staff showed higher rates of all-cause and respiratory infection SA compared to higher grade CS staff. Doctor-certified chronic respiratory and cardiovascular SAs were associated with occupational PM2.5 exposure in CS staff and drivers. While some groups with higher occupational exposure to subway PM reported higher rates of SA, no evidence suggests that subway PM is the main contributing factor to SA. This is the largest subway study on health effects of occupational PM2.5 exposure and may have wider implications for subway workers, contributing to safer working environments.

Quantifying the change of brake wear particulate matter emissions through powertrain electrification in passenger vehicles.

With vehicle fleets transitioning from internal combustion engines (ICE) to electric powertrains, we have used friction brake power simulations, for different vehicle classes and driving styles, to predict the impact of regenerative braking systems (RBS) on brake wear particulate matter emissions (PM10 and PM2.5). Under the same powertrain, subcompact (SC) vehicles were predicted to require between 38 and 68% less friction brake power than heavier sports utility vehicles (L-SUV). However, despite electric and hybrid vehicles being heavier than ICE vehicles, the results show that RBS would reduce brake wear by between 64 and 95%. The study highlights the effect of aggressive braking on the amount of friction brake power required, with electric powertrains more likely to require friction braking to perform short, but aggressive braking compared with longer, slower braking events. Brake wear reductions varied under different driving conditions, as the level of mitigation depends on the complex interaction of several variables, including: vehicle speed, deceleration rate, regenerative braking technology and vehicle mass. Urban brake wear emission factors for electric powertrains ranged from 3.9 to 5.5 mg PM10/km and 1.5-2.1 mg PM2.5/km, providing an average reduction in PM emission factors of 68%. Rural and motorway driving conditions had lower brake wear emission factors, with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV) emitting negligible PM10 and PM2.5 brake wear. Although electric powertrain uptake, vehicle mileage driven and driving styles are dependent upon national policies and strategies, by 2035, we project that total UK brake wear PM emissions would reduce by up to 39% compared with 2020 levels. This analysis supports the transition towards electric and hybrid vehicle fleets to reduce brake wear emissions, however increases in tyre wear, road wear, and resuspension due to increased vehicle mass may offset these benefits.

The variability of mass concentrations and source apportionment analysis of equivalent black carbon across urban Europe.

This study analyzed the variability of equivalent black carbon (eBC) mass concentrations and their sources in urban Europe to provide insights into the use of eBC as an advanced air quality (AQ) parameter for AQ standards. This study compiled eBC mass concentration datasets covering the period between 2006 and 2022 from 50 measurement stations, including 23 urban background (UB), 18 traffic (TR), 7 suburban (SUB), and 2 regional background (RB) sites. The results highlighted the need for the harmonization of eBC measurements to allow for direct comparisons between eBC mass concentrations measured across urban Europe. The eBC mass concentrations exhibited a decreasing trend as follows: TR > UB > SUB > RB. Furthermore, a clear decreasing trend in eBC concentrations was observed in the UB sites moving from Southern to Northern Europe. The eBC mass concentrations exhibited significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity, including marked differences in eBC mass concentration and variable contributions of pollution sources to bulk eBC between different cities. Seasonal patterns in eBC concentrations were also evident, with higher winter concentrations observed in a large proportion of cities, especially at UB and SUB sites. The contribution of eBC from fossil fuel combustion, mostly traffic (eBCT) was higher than that of residential and commercial sources (eBCRC) in all European sites studied. Nevertheless, eBCRC still had a substantial contribution to total eBC mass concentrations at a majority of the sites. eBC trend analysis revealed decreasing trends for eBCT over the last decade, while eBCRC remained relatively constant or even increased slightly in some cities.

Ambient air particulate total lung deposited surface area (LDSA) levels in urban Europe.

This study aims to picture the phenomenology of urban ambient total lung deposited surface area (LDSA) (including head/throat (HA), tracheobronchial (TB), and alveolar (ALV) regions) based on multiple path particle dosimetry (MPPD) model during 2017-2019 period collected from urban background (UB, n = 15), traffic (TR, n = 6), suburban background (SUB, n = 4), and regional background (RB, n = 1) monitoring sites in Europe (25) and USA (1). Briefly, the spatial-temporal distribution characteristics of the deposition of LDSA, including diel, weekly, and seasonal patterns, were analyzed. Then, the relationship between LDSA and other air quality metrics at each monitoring site was investigated. The result showed that the peak concentrations of LDSA at UB and TR sites are commonly observed in the morning (06:00-8:00 UTC) and late evening (19:00-22:00 UTC), coinciding with traffic rush hours, biomass burning, and atmospheric stagnation periods. The only LDSA night-time peaks are observed on weekends. Due to the variability of emission sources and meteorology, the seasonal variability of the LDSA concentration revealed significant differences (p = 0.01) between the four seasons at all monitoring sites. Meanwhile, the correlations of LDSA with other pollutant metrics suggested that Aitken and accumulation mode particles play a significant role in the total LDSA concentration. The results also indicated that the main proportion of total LDSA is attributed to the ALV fraction (50 %), followed by the TB (34 %) and HA (16 %). Overall, this study provides valuable information of LDSA as a predictor in epidemiological studies and for the first time presenting total LDSA in a variety of European urban environments.

Phenomenology of ultrafine particle concentrations and size distribution across urban Europe.

The 2017-2019 hourly particle number size distributions (PNSD) from 26 sites in Europe and 1 in the US were evaluated focusing on 16 urban background (UB) and 6 traffic (TR) sites in the framework of Research Infrastructures services reinforcing air quality monitoring capacities in European URBAN & industrial areaS (RI-URBANS) project. The main objective was to describe the phenomenology of urban ultrafine particles (UFP) in Europe with a significant air quality focus. The varying lower size detection limits made it difficult to compare PN concentrations (PNC), particularly PN10-25, from different cities. PNCs follow a TR > UB > Suburban (SUB) order. PNC and Black Carbon (BC) progressively increase from Northern Europe to Southern Europe and from Western to Eastern Europe. At the UB sites, typical traffic rush hour PNC peaks are evident, many also showing midday-morning PNC peaks anti-correlated with BC. These peaks result from increased PN10-25, suggesting significant PNC contributions from nucleation, fumigation and shipping. Site types to be identified by daily and seasonal PNC and BC patterns are: (i) PNC mainly driven by traffic emissions, with marked correlations with BC on different time scales; (ii) marked midday/morning PNC peaks and a seasonal anti-correlation with PNC/BC; (iii) both traffic peaks and midday peaks without marked seasonal patterns. Groups (ii) and (iii) included cities with high insolation. PNC, especially PN25-800, was positively correlated with BC, NO2, CO and PM for several sites. The variable correlation of PNSD with different urban pollutants demonstrates that these do not reflect the variability of UFP in urban environments. Specific monitoring of PNSD is needed if nanoparticles and their associated health impacts are to be assessed. Implementation of the CEN-ACTRIS recommendations for PNSD measurements would provide comparable measurements, and measurements of <10 nm PNC are needed for full evaluation of the health effects of this size fraction.

Calcite Kinetics for Spiral Growth and Two-Dimensional Nucleation.

Calcite crystals grow by means of molecular steps that develop on {10.4} faces. These steps can arise stochastically via two-dimensional (2D) nucleation or emerge steadily from dislocations to form spiral hillocks. Here, we determine the kinetics of these two growth mechanisms as a function of supersaturation. We show that calcite crystals larger than ∼1 µm favor spiral growth over 2D nucleation, irrespective of the supersaturation. Spirals prevail beyond this length scale because slow boundary layer diffusion creates a low surface supersaturation that favors the spiral mechanism. Sub-micron crystals favor 2D nucleation at high supersaturations, although diffusion can still limit the growth of nanoscopic crystals. Additives can change the dominant mechanism by impeding spiral growth or by directly promoting 2D nucleation.

European aerosol phenomenology - 8: Harmonised source apportionment of organic aerosol using 22 Year-long ACSM/AMS datasets.

Organic aerosol (OA) is a key component of total submicron particulate matter (PM1), and comprehensive knowledge of OA sources across Europe is crucial to mitigate PM1 levels. Europe has a well-established air quality research infrastructure from which yearlong datasets using 21 aerosol chemical speciation monitors (ACSMs) and 1 aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) were gathered during 2013-2019. It includes 9 non-urban and 13 urban sites. This study developed a state-of-the-art source apportionment protocol to analyse long-term OA mass spectrum data by applying the most advanced source apportionment strategies (i.e., rolling PMF, ME-2, and bootstrap). This harmonised protocol was followed strictly for all 22 datasets, making the source apportionment results more comparable. In addition, it enables quantification of the most common OA components such as hydrocarbon-like OA (HOA), biomass burning OA (BBOA), cooking-like OA (COA), more oxidised-oxygenated OA (MO-OOA), and less oxidised-oxygenated OA (LO-OOA). Other components such as coal combustion OA (CCOA), solid fuel OA (SFOA: mainly mixture of coal and peat combustion), cigarette smoke OA (CSOA), sea salt (mostly inorganic but part of the OA mass spectrum), coffee OA, and ship industry OA could also be separated at a few specific sites. Oxygenated OA (OOA) components make up most of the submicron OA mass (average = 71.1%, range from 43.7 to 100%). Solid fuel combustion-related OA components (i.e., BBOA, CCOA, and SFOA) are still considerable with in total 16.0% yearly contribution to the OA, yet mainly during winter months (21.4%). Overall, this comprehensive protocol works effectively across all sites governed by different sources and generates robust and consistent source apportionment results. Our work presents a comprehensive overview of OA sources in Europe with a unique combination of high time resolution (30-240 min) and long-term data coverage (9-36 months), providing essential information to improve/validate air quality, health impact, and climate models.

Source terms for benchmarking models of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via aerosols and droplets.

There is ongoing and rapid advancement in approaches to modelling the fate of exhaled particles in different environments relevant to disease transmission. It is important that models are verified by comparison with each other using a common set of input parameters to ensure that model differences can be interpreted in terms of model physics rather than unspecified differences in model input parameters. In this paper, we define parameters necessary for such benchmarking of models of airborne particles exhaled by humans and transported in the environment during breathing and speaking.

A Review of Road Traffic-Derived Non-Exhaust Particles: Emissions, Physicochemical Characteristics, Health Risks, and Mitigation Measures.

Implementation of regulatory standards has reduced exhaust emissions of particulate matter from road traffic substantially in the developed world. However, nonexhaust particle emissions arising from the wear of brakes, tires, and the road surface, together with the resuspension of road dust, are unregulated and exceed exhaust emissions in many jurisdictions. While knowledge of the sources of nonexhaust particles is fairly good, source-specific measurements of airborne concentrations are few, and studies of the toxicology and epidemiology do not give a clear picture of the health risk posed. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge, with a strong focus on health-related research, highlighting areas where further research is an essential prerequisite for developing focused policy responses to nonexhaust particles.

Sources of particle number concentration and noise near London Gatwick Airport.

There is increasing evidence of potential health impacts from both aircraft noise and aircraft-associated ultrafine particles (UFP). Measurements of noise and UFP are however scarce near airports and so their variability and relationship are not well understood. Particle number size distributions and noise levels were measured at two locations near Gatwick airport (UK) in 2018-19 with the aim to characterize particle number concentrations (PNC) and link PNC sources, especially UFP, with noise. Positive Matrix Factorization was used on particle number size distribution to identify these sources. Mean PNC (7500-12,000 p cm-3) were similar to those measured close to a highly trafficked road in central London. Peak PNC (94,000 p cm-3) were highest at the site closer to the runway. The airport source factor contributed 17% to the PNC at both sites and the concentrations were greatest when the respective sites were downwind of the runway. However, the main source of PNC was associated with traffic emissions. At both sites noise levels were above the recommendations by the WHO (World Health Organisation). Regression models of identified UFP sources and noise suggested that the largest source of noise (LAeq-1hr) above background was associated with sources of fresh traffic and urban UFP depending on the site. Noise and UFP correlations were moderate to low suggesting that UFP are unlikely to be an important confounder in epidemiological studies of aircraft noise and health. Correlations between UFP and noise were affected by meteorological factors, which need to be considered in studies of short-term associations between aircraft noise and health.

Source attribution and quantification of atmospheric nickel concentrations in an industrial area in the United Kingdom (UK).

Pontardawe in South Wales, United Kingdom (UK), consistently has the highest concentrations of nickel (Ni) in PM10 in the UK and repeatedly breaches the 20 ng m-3 annual mean EU target value. Several local industries use Ni in their processes. To assist policy makers and regulators in quantifying the relative Ni contributions of these industries and developing appropriate emission reduction approaches, the hourly concentrations of 23 elements were measured using X-ray fluorescence alongside meteorological variables and black carbon during a four-week campaign in November-December 2015. Concentrations of Ni ranged between 0 and 2480 ng m-3 as hourly means. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was used to identify sources contributing to measured elements. Cluster analysis of bivariate polar plots of those factors containing Ni in their profile was further used to quantify the industrial processes contributing to ambient PM10 concentrations. Two sources were identified to contribute to Ni concentrations, stainless-steel (which contributed to 10% of the Ni burden) and the Ni refinery (contributing 90%). From the stainless-steel process, melting activities were responsible for 66% of the stainless-steel factor contribution.