An Impedance-Loaded Surface Acoustic Wave Corrosion Sensor for Infrastructure Monitoring.

Passive surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are attractive candidates for continuous wireless monitoring of corrosion in large infrastructures. However, acoustic loss in the aqueous medium and limited read range usually create challenges in their widespread use for monitoring large systems such as oil and gas (O&G) pipelines, aircraft, and processing plants. This paper presents the investigation of impedance-loaded reflective delay line (IL-RDL) SAW devices for monitoring metal corrosion under O&G pipeline-relevant conditions. Specifically, we studied the effect of change in resistivity of a reflector on the backscattered signal of an RDL and investigated an optimal range through simulation. This was followed by the experimental demonstrations of real-time monitoring of Fe film corrosion in pressurized (550 psi) humid CO2 conditions. Additionally, remote monitoring of Fe film corrosion in an acidic solution inside a 70 m carbon steel pipe was demonstrated using guided waves. This paper also suggests potential ways to improve the sensing response of IL-RDLs.

Investigation of Goubau Wave Propagation on Large Pipes for Sensing Applications.

We examine the application of guided waves on a single conductor (Goubau waves) for sensing. In particular, the use of such waves to remotely interrogate surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors mounted on large-radius conductors (pipes) is considered. Experimental results using a small-radius (0.0032 m) conductor at 435 MHz are reported. The applicability of published theory to conductors of large radius is examined. Finite element simulations are then used to study the propagation and launching of Goubau waves on steel conductors up to 0.254 m in radius. Simulations show that waves can be launched and received, although energy loss into radiating waves is a problem with current launcher designs.

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-coated acoustic sensors for room temperature detection of carbon dioxide and methane.

The integration of nanoporous materials such as metal organic frameworks (MOFs) with sensitive transducers can result in robust sensing platforms for monitoring gases and chemical vapors for a range of applications. Here, we report on an integration of the zeolitic imidazolate framework - 8 (ZIF-8) MOF with surface acoustic wave (SAW) and thickness shear mode quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) devices to monitor carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) under ambient conditions. The MOF was directly coated on the Y-Z LiNbO3 SAW delay lines (operating frequency, f0 = 436 MHz) and AT-cut quartz TSM resonators (resonant frequency, f0 = 9 MHz) and the devices were tested for various gases in N2 under ambient conditions. The devices were able to detect the changes in CO2 or CH4 concentrations with relatively higher sensitivity to CO2, which was due to its higher adsorption potential and heavier molecular weight. The sensors showed full reversibility and repeatability which were attributed to the physisorption of the gases into the MOF and high stability of the devices. Both types of sensors showed linear responses relative to changes in the binary gas compositions thereby allowing to construct calibration curves which correlated well with the expected mass changes in the sorbent layer based on mixed-gas gravimetric adsorption isotherms measured on bulk samples. For 200 nm thick films, the SAW sensitivities to CO2 and CH4 were 1.44 × 10-6/vol% and 8 × 10-8/vol%, respectively, against the QCM sensitivities 0.24 × 10-6/vol% and 1 × 10-8/vol%, respectively, which were evaluated as the fractional change in the signal. The SAW sensors were also evaluated for 100 nm-300 nm thick films, the sensitivities of which were found to increase with the thickness due to the increased number of pores for the adsorption of a larger amount of gases. In addition, the MOF-coated SAW delay lines had a good response in wireless mode, demonstrating their potential to operate remotely for the detection of the gases at emission sites across the energy infrastructure.

SAW Sensors for Chemical Vapors and Gases.

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology provides a sensitive platform for sensing chemicals in gaseous and fluidic states with the inherent advantages of passive and wireless operation. In this review, we provide a general overview on the fundamental aspects and some major advances of Rayleigh wave-based SAW sensors in sensing chemicals in a gaseous phase. In particular, we review the progress in general understanding of the SAW chemical sensing mechanism, optimization of the sensor characteristics, and the development of the sensors operational at different conditions. Based on previous publications, we suggest some appropriate sensing approaches for particular applications and identify new opportunities and needs for additional research in this area moving into the future.

Robust ultrasonic damage detection under complex environmental conditions using singular value decomposition.

Guided wave ultrasonics is an attractive monitoring technique for damage diagnosis in large-scale plate and pipe structures. Damage can be detected by comparing incoming records with baseline records collected on intact structure. However, during long-term monitoring, environmental and operational conditions often vary significantly and produce large changes in the ultrasonic signals, thereby challenging the baseline comparison based damage detection. Researchers developed temperature compensation methods to eliminate the effects of temperature variation, but they have limitations in practical implementations. In this paper, we develop a robust damage detection method based on singular value decomposition (SVD). We show that the orthogonality of singular vectors ensures that the effect of damage and that of environmental and operational variations are separated into different singular vectors. We report on our field ultrasonic monitoring of a 273.05 mm outer diameter pipe segment, which belongs to a hot water piping system in continuous operation. We demonstrate the efficacy of our method on experimental pitch-catch records collected during seven months. We show that our method accurately detects the presence of a mass scatterer, and is robust to the environmental and operational variations exhibited in the practical system.

Surface acoustic wave devices for harsh environment wireless sensing.

Langasite surface acoustic wave devices can be used to implement harsh-environment wireless sensing of gas concentration and temperature. This paper reviews prior work on the development of langasite surface acoustic wave devices, followed by a report of recent progress toward the implementation of oxygen gas sensors. Resistive metal oxide films can be used as the oxygen sensing film, although development of an adherent barrier layer will be necessary with the sensing layers studied here to prevent interaction with the langasite substrate. Experimental results are presented for the performance of a langasite surface acoustic wave oxygen sensor with tin oxide sensing layer, and these experimental results are correlated with direct measurements of the sensing layer resistivity.

Langasite surface acoustic wave gas sensors: modeling and verification.

We report finite element simulations of the effect of conductive sensing layers on the surface wave velocity of langasite substrates. The simulations include both the mechanical and electrical influences of the conducting sensing layer. We show that three-dimensional simulations are necessary because of the out-of-plane displacements of the commonly used (0, 138.5, 26.7) Euler angle. Measurements of the transducer input admittance in reflective delay-line devices yield a value for the electromechanical coupling coefficient that is in good agreement with the three-dimensional simulations on bare langasite substrate. The input admittance measurements also show evidence of excitation of an additional wave mode and excess loss resulting from the finger resistance. The results of these simulations and measurements will be useful in the design of surface acoustic wave gas sensors.

Langasite surface acoustic wave sensors: fabrication and testing.

We report on the development of harsh-environment surface acoustic wave sensors for wired and wireless operation. Surface acoustic wave devices with an interdigitated transducer emitter and multiple reflectors were fabricated on langasite substrates. Both wired and wireless temperature sensing was demonstrated using radar-mode (pulse) detection. Temperature resolution of better than ±0.5°C was achieved between 200°C and 600°C. Oxygen sensing was achieved by depositing a layer of ZnO on the propagation path. Although the ZnO layer caused additional attenuation of the surface wave, oxygen sensing was accomplished at temperatures up to 700°C. The results indicate that langasite SAW devices are a potential solution for harsh-environment gas and temperature sensing.

Generation and detection of guided waves using PZT wafer transducers.

We report here the use of finite element simulation and experiments to further explore the operation of the wafer transducer. We have separately modeled the emission and detection processes. In particular, we have calculated the wave velocities and the received voltage signals due to A0 and S0 modes at an output transducer as a function of pulse center frequency. These calculations include the effects of finite pulse width, pulse dispersion, and the detailed interaction between the piezoelectric element and the transmitting medium. We show that the received signals for A0 and S0 modes have maxima near the frequencies predicted from the previously published point-force model.

Fibroblast growth and H-7 protein kinase inhibitor response monitored in microimpedance sensor arrays.

Functional genomic studies and drug candidate testing both require high throughput, parallel experimentation strategies to screen for variable cellular behaviors. In this article we describe the use of an impedance sensing electrode array that is capable of sensing cell "presence" as well as the extent of cell (focal) attachment to the substrate. The signals provided by mouse fibroblasts on a sensing structure containing four different sized electrodes are reported. In the absence of cells, each electrode's impedance was found to depend as expected on electrode size and frequency. The impedance increased by several-fold when fibroblasts attached and spread out over time. More notably, the sensors also detected the cellular response to the protein kinase C inhibitor, H-7. H-7 inhibits actomyosin contractility; thereafter, the loss of focal adhesion complexes occurs. The sensors, in turn, detected an impedance decrease after H-7 addition and an increase in impedance after H-7 removal.

Electrical characterization of coupled and uncoupled MEMS ultrasonic transducers.

We report electrical characterization of micromachined polysilicon capacitive diaphragms for use as ultrasonic transducers. Admittance measurements yield insight into the resonant behavior and also the damping resulting from ultrasonic radiation and frictional forces caused by the etch release holes. Unbonded transducers exhibit sharp resonances with Q values that increase with decreasing air pressure. We also report for the first time direct bonding of these transducers to solid surfaces. Transducers survive the bonding process and show distinctly different displacement in response to applied dc bias. Finally, a single-degree-of-freedom model is used to obtain insight into the various contributions to damping.

MEMS ultrasonic transducers for the testing of solids.

Arrays of capacitive diaphragm ultrasonic transducers could potentially be used for non-destructive ultrasonic testing and structural monitoring. In this paper, we consider the efficiency of coupling of these transducers to solid media. We show that efficient coupling can be realized by using a silicone coating as a coupling medium. We present the results of experimental characterization of ultrasonic transducers coupled to solids in this way. We show that these transducers can be used with piezoelectric emitting transducers within the range from 1 to 5 MHz, and we demonstrate the use of several transducers as a phased array to determine the direction and distance of an ultrasonic source.