Virtual reality as a countermeasure for astronaut motion sickness during simulated post-flight water landings.

Entry motion sickness (EMS) affects crewmembers upon return to Earth following extended adaptation to microgravity. Anticholinergic pharmaceuticals (e.g., Meclizine) are often taken prior to landing; however, they have operationally adverse side effects (e.g., drowsiness). There is a need to develop non-pharmaceutical countermeasures to EMS. We assessed the efficacy of a technological countermeasure providing external visual cues following splashdown, where otherwise only nauseogenic internal cabin visual references are available. Our countermeasure provided motion-congruent visual cues of an Earth-fixed scene in virtual reality, which was compared to a control condition with a head-fixed fixation point in virtual reality in a between-subject design with 15 subjects in each group. We tested the countermeasure's effectiveness at mitigating motion sickness symptoms at the end of a ground-based reentry analog: approximately 1 h of 2Gx centrifugation followed by up to 1 h of wave-like motion. Secondarily, we explored differences in vestibular-mediated balance performance between the two conditions. While Motion Sickness Questionnaire outcomes did not differ detectably between groups, we found significantly better survival rates (with dropout dictated by reporting moderate nausea consecutively over 2 min) in the visual countermeasure group than the control group (79% survival vs. 33%, t(14) = 2.50, p = 0.027). Following the reentry analogs, subjects demonstrated significantly higher sway prior to recovery (p = 0.0004), which did not differ between control and countermeasure groups. These results imply that providing motion-congruent visual cues may be an effective mean for curbing the development of moderate nausea and increasing comfort following future space missions.

Integration of visual and inertial cues in the perception of angular self-motion.

The brain is able to determine angular self-motion from visual, vestibular, and kinesthetic information. There is compelling evidence that both humans and non-human primates integrate visual and inertial (i.e., vestibular and kinesthetic) information in a statistically optimal fashion when discriminating heading direction. In the present study, we investigated whether the brain also integrates information about angular self-motion in a similar manner. Eight participants performed a 2IFC task in which they discriminated yaw-rotations (2-s sinusoidal acceleration) on peak velocity. Just-noticeable differences (JNDs) were determined as a measure of precision in unimodal inertial-only and visual-only trials, as well as in bimodal visual-inertial trials. The visual stimulus was a moving stripe pattern, synchronized with the inertial motion. Peak velocity of comparison stimuli was varied relative to the standard stimulus. Individual analyses showed that data of three participants showed an increase in bimodal precision, consistent with the optimal integration model; while data from the other participants did not conform to maximum-likelihood integration schemes. We suggest that either the sensory cues were not perceived as congruent, that integration might be achieved with fixed weights, or that estimates of visual precision obtained from non-moving observers do not accurately reflect visual precision during self-motion.

The time constant of the somatogravic illusion.

Without visual feedback, humans perceive tilt when experiencing a sustained linear acceleration. This tilt illusion is commonly referred to as the somatogravic illusion. Although the physiological basis of the illusion seems to be well understood, the dynamic behavior is still subject to discussion. In this study, the dynamic behavior of the illusion was measured experimentally for three motion profiles with different frequency content. Subjects were exposed to pure centripetal accelerations in the lateral direction and were asked to indicate their tilt percept by means of a joystick. Variable-radius centrifugation during constant angular rotation was used to generate these motion profiles. Two self-motion perception models were fitted to the experimental data and were used to obtain the time constant of the somatogravic illusion. Results showed that the time constant of the somatogravic illusion was on the order of two seconds, in contrast to the higher time constant found in fixed-radius centrifugation studies. Furthermore, the time constant was significantly affected by the frequency content of the motion profiles. Motion profiles with higher frequency content revealed shorter time constants which cannot be explained by self-motion perception models that assume a fixed time constant. Therefore, these models need to be improved with a mechanism that deals with this variable time constant. Apart from the fundamental importance, these results also have practical consequences for the simulation of sustained accelerations in motion simulators.

How to use body tilt for the simulation of linear self motion.

We examined to what extent body tilt may augment the perception of visually simulated linear self acceleration. Fourteen subjects judged visual motion profiles of fore-aft motion at four different frequencies between 0.04-0.33 Hz, and at three different acceleration amplitudes (0.44, 0.88 and 1.76 m/s(2)). Simultaneously, subjects were tilted backward and forward about their pitch axis. The amplitude of pitch tilt was systematically varied. Using a two-alternative-forced-choice paradigm, psychometric curves were calculated in order to determine: 1) the minimum tilt amplitude required to generate a linear self-motion percept in more than 50% of the cases, and 2) the maximum tilt amplitude at which rotation remains sub-threshold in more than 50% of the cases. The results showed that the simulation of linear self motion became more realistic with the application of whole body tilt, as long as the tilt rate remained under the detection threshold of about 3 deg/s. This value is in close agreement with the empirical rate limit commonly used in flight simulation. The minimum required motion cue was inversely proportional to stimulus frequency, and increased with the amplitude of the visual displacement (rather than acceleration). As a consequence, the range of useful tilt stimuli became more critical with increasing stimulus frequency. We conclude that this psychophysical approach reveals valid parameters for motion driving algorithms used in motion base simulators.

Influence of body roll on visually induced sensations of self-tilt and rotation.

Illusory self-tilt and illusory self-motion (vection) produced by rotation of a 360 degrees visual scene about the subject's roll axis was measured as a function of the presence or absence of actual rotation of the subject during acceleration of the visual scene. Rotation of the subject to a tilt of 15 degrees was at two levels of acceleration (onset) and with or without a delay between initial rotation and subsequent return (washout) to the vertical position. In one set of conditions, visual motion and subject motion were in opposite directions (concordant) and in another set they were in the same direction (discordant). In two control conditions, the subject was rotated while the visual scene remained stationary. For concordant motion the main effect of body rotation was to reduce the time taken by the subject to indicate self-tilt as compared with the response time to visual motion alone. The magnitude of estimated self-tilt was increased by actual body tilt as could be expected from addition of the perceived actual body tilt and the illusory body tilt induced by visual rotation. This effect of augmented body tilt did not persist after the body was returned to the vertical. The magnitude of vection was not markedly influenced by body rotation and washout. For discordant motion of body and the visual scene, subjects were confused and their responses were very variable, suggesting a nonlinear visual--vestibular interaction.

Denervation reveals two components of neurotransmission in electroreceptor synapses.

Denervation-induced changes in the synaptic efficacy of single electroreceptors in catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus, Teleostei) were studied in vivo under alfadolone anaesthesia. At 16 degrees C the following effects were found 48 h post-operatively: (1) the average amplitude of the extra-dermally recorded spikes decreased from 100 to less than 20 microV; (2) the average resting discharge decreased from 40 to less than 25 spikes/s; (3) neither the sensitivity nor the frequency characteristic changed. The results indicate that the resting discharge and the modulation mechanism of sensory synapses are controlled by different biochemical mechanisms. The resting discharge seems to be related to the trophic function of the afferent nerve and to its generator region, whereas the modulation mechanism is apparently associated with the receptor cell.