Mechanism of vitamin C inhibition of cell death induced by oxidative stress in glutathione-depleted HL-60 cells.

Vitamin C is a well known antioxidant whose precise role in protecting cells from oxidative challenge is uncertain. In vitro results have been confounded by pro-oxidant effects of ascorbic acid and an overlapping role of glutathione. We used HL-60 cells as a model to determine the precise and independent role of vitamin C in cellular protection against cell death induced by oxidative stress. HL-60 cells do not depend on glutathione to transport or reduce dehydroascorbic acid. Depletion of glutathione rendered the HL-60 cells highly sensitive to cell death induced by H2O2, an effect that was not mediated by changes in the activities of glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, or superoxide dismutase. The increased sensitivity to oxidative stress was largely reversed when glutathione-depleted cells were preloaded with ascorbic acid by exposure to dehydroascorbic acid. Resistance to H2O2 treatment in cells loaded with vitamin C was accompanied by intracellular consumption of ascorbic acid, generation of dehydroascorbic acid, and a decrease in the cellular content of reactive oxygen species. Some of the dehydroascorbic acid generated was exported out of the cells via the glucose transporters. Our data indicate that vitamin C is an important independent antioxidant in protecting cells against death from oxidative stress.

Hexose transporter expression and function in mammalian spermatozoa: cellular localization and transport of hexoses and vitamin C.

We analyzed the expression of hexose transporters in human testis and in human, rat, and bull spermatozoa and studied the uptake of hexoses and vitamin C in bull spermatozoa. Immunocytochemical and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analyses demonstrated that adult human testis expressed the hexose transporters GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, and GLUT5. Immunoblotting experiments demonstrated the presence of proteins of about 50-70 kD reactive with anti-GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, and GLUT5 in membranes prepared from human spermatozoa, but no proteins reactive with GLUT4 antibodies were detected. Immunolocalization experiments confirmed the presence of GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT5, and low levels of GLUT4 in human, rat, and bull spermatozoa. Each transporter isoform showed a typical subcellular localization in the head and the sperm tail. In the tail, GLUT3 and GLUT5 were present at the level of the middle piece in the three species examined, GLUT1 was present in the principal piece, and the localization of GLUT2 differed according of the species examined. Bull spermatozoa transported deoxyglucose, fructose, and the oxidized form of vitamin C, dehydroascorbic acid. Transport of deoxyglucose and dehydroascorbic acid was inhibited by cytochalasin B, indicating the direct participation of facilitative hexose transporters in the transport of both substrates by bull spermatozoa. Transport of fructose was not affected by cytochalasin B, which is consistent for an important role for GLUT5 in the transport of fructose in these cells. The data show that human, rat, and bull spermatozoa express several hexose transporter isoforms that allow for the efficient uptake of glucose, fructose, and dehydroascorbic acid by these cells.

Expression of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptors in human prostate cancer.

We studied the expression and function of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor in the human prostate carcinoma cell line LNCaP and looked for its presence in normal and neoplastic human prostatic tissue. The GM-CSF receptor is composed of two subunits, alpha and beta. While the isolated alpha subunit binds GM-CSF at low-affinity, the isolated beta subunit does not bind GM-CSF by itself; but complexes with the alpha subunit to form a high-affinity receptor. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed expression of mRNAs encoding the alpha and beta subunits of the GM-CSF receptor in LNCaP cells, and the presence of the alpha and beta proteins was confirmed by immunolocalization with anti-alpha and anti-beta antibodies. Receptor binding studies using radiolabeled GM-CSF showed that LNCaP cells have about 150 high-affinity sites with a kd of 40 pmol/L and approximately 750 low-affinity sites with a kd of 2 nmol/L. GM-CSF signaled, in a time- and dose-dependent manner, for protein tyrosine phosphorylation and induced the proliferation of the LNCaP cells. Immunolocalization studies showed low level expression of GM-CSF alpha and beta subunits in normal prostate tissue, with substantial expression in benign prostatic hyperplasia and prominent expression in neoplastic prostate tissue. Maximal expression of both subunits was observed in prostatic carcinomas metastatic to lymph node and bone. Tumor cells that stained positively with anti-alpha subunit antibodies were also reactive with anti-beta subunit antibodies, indicating that they express high-affinity GM-CSF receptors. Our data show that the LNCaP cells express functional GM-CSF receptors and that prostatic carcinomas have prominent GM-CSF receptor expression. These findings imply that both hyperplastic and neoplastic prostatic tissues may be responsive to GM-CSF.

Efficient transport and accumulation of vitamin C in HL-60 cells depleted of glutathione.

Human myeloid leukemia cells (HL-60) transport only the oxidized form of vitamin C (dehydroascorbic acid) and accumulate the vitamin in the reduced form, ascorbic acid. We performed a detailed study of the role of glutathione in the intracellular trapping/accumulation of ascorbic acid in HL-60 cells. Uptake studies using HL-60 cells depleted of glutathione by treatment with L-buthionine-(S,R) sulfoximine and diethyl maleate, revealed no changes in the cells' ability to transport dehydroascorbic acid and accumulate ascorbic acid. Similar transport and accumulation rates were obtained using HL-60 cells containing intracellular glutathione concentrations from 6 mM to 1 microM. HL-60 cells, containing as little as 5 microM glutathione, were able to accumulate up to 150 mM ascorbic acid intracellularly when incubated with dehydroascorbic acid. Glutathione was capable of reducing dehydroascorbic acid by a direct chemical reaction, but only when present in a greater than 10-fold stoichiometric excess over dehydroascorbic acid. The accumulation of ascorbic acid by HL-60 cells was strongly temperature-dependent and was very inefficient at 16 degrees C. On the other hand, the direct chemical reduction of dehydroascorbic acid by excess glutathione proceeded efficiently at temperatures of 16 degrees C. Our data indicate that glutathione-dependent reductases in HL-60 cells are not responsible for the ability of these cells to accumulate millimolar concentrations of ascorbic acid. These findings indicate that alternative enzymatic mechanisms are involved in the cellular reduction of dehydroascorbic acid.

Increased uptake and accumulation of vitamin C in human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected hematopoietic cell lines.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is required for normal host defense and functions importantly in cellular redox systems. To define the interrelationship between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and vitamin C flux at the cellular level, we analyzed vitamin C uptake and its effects on virus production and cellular proliferation in HIV-infected and uninfected human lymphoid, myeloid, and mononuclear phagocyte cell lines. Chronic or acute infection of these cell lines by HIV-1 led to increased expression of glucose transporter 1, associated with increased transport and accumulation of vitamin C. Infected cells also showed increased transport of glucose analogs. Exposure to vitamin C had a complex effect on cell proliferation and viral production. Low concentrations of vitamin C increased or decreased cell proliferation depending on the cell line and either had no effect or caused increased viral production. Exposure to high concentrations of vitamin C preferentially decreased the proliferation and survival of the HIV-infected cells and caused decreased viral production. These findings indicate that HIV infection in lymphocytic, monocytic, and myeloid cell lines leads to increased expression of glucose transporter 1 and consequent increased cellular vitamin C uptake. High concentrations of vitamin C were preferentially toxic to HIV-infected host defense cell lines in vitro.