Redes locales de salud pública. A propósito de una experiencia / Local public health networks. Apropos of an experience

La acción en salud pública sobre un territorio es compleja y requiere la intervención de numerosos actores, que no siempre lo harán coordinadamente. La estructuración en redes de organizaciones que incluyan al conjunto de los actores implicados en el ámbito local es una alternativa adecuada para generar sinergias y posibilitar una mayor efectividad y eficiencia de las actuaciones realizadas en un mismo territorio. Presentamos la experiencia de 3 años de cuatro Comisiones de Salud Pública en una Región Sanitaria de Cataluña, formadas por los principales actores en salud pública del territorio. Cada una de las comisiones se organiza en plenarios y grupos de trabajo sobre temas surgidos del diagnóstico de salud del territorio, y coincidentes con el Plan de Salud de la Región Sanitaria. La coordinación en ningún caso presupone la pérdida ni la dilución del protagonismo del actor generador de la iniciativa de intervención en el terreno de la salud pública, sino su potenciación y la colaboración por parte del resto de los actores. En conclusión, se valora positivamente la generación de una cultura de colaboración y sinergias entre las diversas organizaciones implicadas. Se constata una falta de concreción en el establecimiento de los objetivos operativos, así como la necesidad de una mayor coordinación e implicación de los componentes de los diversos grupos de trabajo (AU)

Public health action on a territory is complex and requires the involvement of multiple actors, who do not always act coordinately. Networks of organizations structures including the whole of the local actors facilitate the generation of synergies and enable greater effectiveness and efficiency of the joint action from the different actors on a same landscape. We present 3 years experience of four Public Health Committees in a region of Catalonia (Spain), composed by the main actors in public health planning. Each of the committees is organized on a plenary and working groups on issues arising from the regional health diagnosis, and coincident with the Health Plan of the Region. Coordination in no case implies the loss or dilution of the firm of the actor generator of intervention initiative in public health, but their empowerment and collaboration by the other actors. In conclusion welcomes the creation of a culture of collaboration and synergies between the different organizations concerned. Lack of specificity is observed in establishing operational objectives, and the need for greater coordination and involvement of the components of the various working groups (AU)

[Local public health networks. Apropos of an experience]. / Redes locales de salud pública. A propósito de una experiencia.

Public health action on a territory is complex and requires the involvement of multiple actors, who do not always act coordinately. Networks of organizations structures including the whole of the local actors facilitate the generation of synergies and enable greater effectiveness and efficiency of the joint action from the different actors on a same landscape. We present 3 years experience of four Public Health Committees in a region of Catalonia (Spain), composed by the main actors in public health planning. Each of the committees is organized on a plenary and working groups on issues arising from the regional health diagnosis, and coincident with the Health Plan of the Region. Coordination in no case implies the loss or dilution of the firm of the actor generator of intervention initiative in public health, but their empowerment and collaboration by the other actors. In conclusion welcomes the creation of a culture of collaboration and synergies between the different organizations concerned. Lack of specificity is observed in establishing operational objectives, and the need for greater coordination and involvement of the components of the various working groups.

[Smoke-free areas: persuasion and enforcement]. / Espacios sin humo: persuasión y obligación.

This paper presents the actions taken by the public health services in the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) to improve compliance with the requirements of the new 28/2005 tobacco control law. These were essentially informative at first, with a second phase where authority enforcement mechanisms were activated. In workplaces, educational settings and transport the law was incorporated without incidents nor relevant complaints, except for isolated incidents in some university or mass transport settings. In food establishments the process has been more complex. Estimating the frequency of related events, there are 17.5 formal citizen complaints for 100,000 person-years. Inspections generated by citizen complaints resulted in 3.3 administrative proceedings for 100,000 person-years, mostly for incurring in serious violations. Effectively enforcing the law required active information and communication policies, as well as the real enforcement by health authority. This caused an important workload to the public health services.

Espacios sin humo: persuasión y obligación / Smoke-free areas: persuasion and enforcement

Se presentan las acciones de los servicios de salud públicaen Barcelona para conseguir un mejor cumplimiento de laLey 28/2005 de medidas sanitarias frente al tabaquismo. Éstasse concentran en una primera fase informativa y una segundaen la que se activan los mecanismos de ejercicio de la autoridadsanitaria.La implantación de la Ley en centros de trabajo, educativosy medios de transporte se saldó sin incidentes relevantes salvosucesos aislados en algún centro universitario o medio de transporte.En el sector alimentario el proceso ha sido más complejo.Se calculan 17,5 denuncias ciudadanas por 100.000 personas-año. Las inspecciones desencadenadas por denunciasciudadanas provocaron la apertura de 3,3 expedientes sancionadorespor 100.000 personas-año, en general por incluiral menos una falta grave.La implantación de la Ley ha precisado políticas activas decomunicación y el ejercicio real de la autoridad sanitaria. Estoha comportado una notable carga de trabajo para los serviciosde salud pública(AU)

This paper presents the actions taken by the public healthservices in the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) to improvecompliance with the requirements of the new 28/2005 tobaccocontrol law. These were essentially informative at first,with a second phase where authority enforcement mechanismswere activated.In workplaces, educational settings and transport the law wasincorporated without incidents nor relevant complaints, exceptfor isolated incidents in some university or mass transport settings.In food establishments the process has been more complex.Estimating the frequency of related events, there are 17.5formal citizen complaints for 100,000 person-years. Inspectionsgenerated by citizen complaints resulted in 3.3 administrativeproceedings for 100,000 person-years, mostly for incurringin serious violations.Effectively enforcing the law required active information andcommunication policies, as well as the real enforcement byhealth authority. This caused an important workload to the publichealth services(AU)

[Innovating the service management of public health: the experience of the Barcelona Public Health Agency (Spain)]. / Innovar en la gestión de servicios de salud pública: la experiencia de la Agencia de Salud Pública de Barcelona.

We describe the evolution of the organization of public health services in the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) until the creation of the Barcelona Public Health Agency. This Agency is a consortium created by the Barcelona City Council and the Government of Catalonia as the sole entity responsible for regional and local public health services in the city. The underlying logic for the Agency's design, as well as its mission, vision and value statements, strategy, services' portfolio, and the role of leadership in the process, are analyzed. Aspects related to the Agency's quality and communication plans, as well as the design of its processes, and its policy in terms of alliances for research and training in public health, are discussed. Finally, the main challenges for the future are described.

Innovar en la gestión de servicios de salud pública: la experiencia de la Agencia de Salud Pública de Barcelona / Innovating the service management of public health: the experience of the Barcelona Public Health Agency [Spain]

Se describe la evolución de la prestación de servicios de salud pública en la ciudad de Barcelona hasta la creación de la Agència de Salut Pública de Barcelona. La Agencia es un ente consorcial del Ayuntamiento de Barcelona y la Generalitat de Catalunya, como único gestor de las competencias locales y autonómicas en salud pública para la ciudad. Se analiza la lógica de su construcción, su definición de misión, visión y valores,estrategia y catálogo de servicios, así como el rol dela dirección en el conjunto del proceso. Se detallan aspectos de los planes de comunicación y calidad, la estructuración por procesos, y su política de alianzas en los terrenos de docencia e investigación en salud pública, para acabar enumerando los principales retos de futuro que para esta organización se presentan

We describe the evolution of the organization of publichealth services in the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) until the creation of the Barcelona Public Health Agency. This Agency is a consortium created by the Barcelona City Council and the Government of Catalonia as the sole entity responsible for regional and local public health services in the city. The underlyinglogic for the Agency’s design, as well as its mission, vision and value statements, strategy, services’ portfolio, and the role of leadership in the process, are analyzed. Aspects related to the Agency’s quality and communication plans, as well as the design of its processes, and its policy in terms of alliances forresearch and training in public health, are discussed. Finally, the main challenges for the future are described

[Advances in the management of an animal shelter]. / Avances en la gestión de un centro de acogida de animales de compañía.

Changes in the Barcelona animal shelter from 2002 to 2005 are presented. In 2003, routine euthanasia of unclaimed stray animals was discontinued, due to a political decision of the city council. Changes were also made in the management of the shelter: from January 2003 to July 2004 the shelter was operated by an animal protection organization, and then directly again by the city public health agency. Management of the shelter by the animal welfare organization was associated with an increase in the proportion of dogs rescued and adopted. The suspension of routine euthanasia was associated with a marked increase in the number of stray dogs. Canine distemper became endemic in the shelter until late 2004, due to a certain unwillingness to use euthanasia to control infection transmission. Direct operation by public health services in a context of transparency and high social expectations has led to the development and adoption of standardized work protocols in the shelter, improving quality.

Avances en la gestión de un centro de acogida de animales de compañía / Advances in the management of an animal shelter

Se presenta la evolución del centro de acogida de animales de compañía de la ciudad de Barcelona de 2002 a 2005. Por mandato municipal se suspenden de forma general los sacrificios desde 2003. Se producen cambios de gestión, asumida durante los meses que van de enero de 2003 a julio de 2004 por una entidad protectora, y luego directamente por los servicios de salud pública. La gestión de una protectora conllevó notables incrementos en el número de animales rescatados y adoptados. La suspensión del sacrificio se acompañó de un extraordinario incremento de la tasa de abandonos. La reticencia en eutanasiar a animales aquejados de enfermedades infecciosas generó una endemia de moquillo, que se controló a finales de 2004. La recuperación de la gestión directa por los servicios de salud pública en un contexto de transparencia y exigencia social ha llevado al desarrollo y la adopción de protocolos de trabajo sistematizados, que mejoran la calidad

Changes in the Barcelona animal shelter from 2002 to 2005 are presented. In 2003, routine euthanasia of unclaimed stray animals was discontinued, due to a political decision of the city council. Changes were also made in the management of the shelter: from January 2003 to July 2004 the shelter was operated by an animal protection organization, and then directly again by the city public health agency. Management of the shelter by the animal welfare organization was associated with an increase in the proportion of dogs rescued and adopted. The suspension of routine euthanasia was associated with a marked increase in the number of stray dogs. Canine distemper became endemic in the shelter until late 2004, due to a certain unwillingness to use euthanasia to control infection transmission. Direct operation by public health services in a context of transparency and high social expectations has led to the development and adoption of standardized work protocols in the shelter, improving quality

[Community outbreak of pneumonia due to Legionella pneumophila: importance of monitoring hospital cooling towers]. / Brote comunitario de neumonía por Legionella pneumophila: importancia del control de las torres de refrigeración en los centros sanitarios.

OBJECTIVE: Description of an outbreak of legionnaires' disease originating in one of the cooling towers of a hospital. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This study included patients with confirmed pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 and related to the Vallcarca neighborhood of Barcelona (Spain) in August 2004. Exposure was determined by a standardized questionnaire. An environmental investigation was carried out to identify the source of the outbreak. A descriptive analysis including incidence rates estimation was performed, as well as molecular study to document the genetic identity among human and environmental strains. RESULTS: Thirty-three cases of L. pneumophila pneumonia were detected. Median age was 68 years and 70% of the affected patients were men. Incidence rate among residents in less than 200 meters of the source and older than 65 was 888.9 cases/100,000 inhabitants. Lethality rate was 6%. Four seasonal cooling towers that were not registered with the authorities were identified in a health care center. L. pneumophila was isolated from all four and at least one colony in each tower had the same genetic profile as the strains isolated from patients. CONCLUSIONS: An association was demonstrated between a community outbreak of legionellosis and unregistered seasonal cooling towers located in a hospital. All risk facilities should be registered and inspected to ensure that they fulfill current legislation requirements.

Brote comunitario de neumonía por Legionella pneumophila: importancia del control de las torres de refrigeración en los centros sanitarios / Outbreak of legionnaires’ disease linked to hospital cooling towers

Objetivo. Describir la investigación de un brote comunitario de legionelosis originado en unas torres de refrigeración de un hospital. Pacientes y métodos. Pacientes diagnosticados de neumonía por Legionella pneumophila serogrupo 1 (L. pneumophila) asociados con el barrio de Vallcarca (Barcelona) en agosto de 2004. La exposición se determinó mediante una encuesta estandarizada. Se llevó a cabo una investigación ambiental para identificar el foco emisor. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo con cálculo de tasas de incidencia, así como el estudio molecular para documentar la identidad genética entre las cepas humanas y ambientales aisladas. Resultados. Se detectaron 33 casos de neumonía por L. pneumophila. La edad media fue de 68 años y el 70% de los afectados eran varones. La tasa de incidencia en los mayores de 65 años residentes a una distancia menor o igual a 200 m del foco emisor fue de 888,9 casos/100.000 habitantes. La tasa de letalidad fue del 6%. Se identificaron cuatro torres de refrigeración estacionales no censadas ubicadas en un centro sanitario. En todas se aisló L. pneumophila y al menos una colonia de cada instalación compartía perfil genético con las cepas aisladas en los pacientes. Conclusiones. Se muestra la asociación de un brote comunitario de neumonía por Legionella y las torres de refrigeración de un centro sanitario que no estaban censadas. Se remarca la necesidad de notificar cualquier instalación de riesgo y de realizar un seguimiento para asegurar que cumplen con la legislación (AU)

Objective. Description of an outbreak of legionnaires’ disease originating in one of the cooling towers of a hospital. Patients and methods. This study included patients with confirmed pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 and related to the Vallcarca neighborhood of Barcelona (Spain) in August 2004. Exposure was determined by a standardized questionnaire. An environmental investigation was carried out to identify the source of the outbreak. A descriptive analysis including incidence rates estimation was performed, as well as molecular study to document the genetic identity among human and environmental strains. Results. Thirty-three cases of L. pneumophila pneumonia were detected. Median age was 68 years and 70% of the affected patients were men. Incidence rate among residents in less than 200 meters of the source and older than 65 was 888.9 cases/100,000 inhabitants. Lethality rate was 6%. Four seasonal cooling towers that were not registered with the authorities were identified in a health care center. L. pneumophila was isolated from all four and at least one colony in each tower had the same genetic profile as the strains isolated from patients. Conclusions. An association was demonstrated between a community outbreak of legionellosis and unregistered seasonal cooling towers located in a hospital. All risk facilities should be registered and inspected to ensure that they fulfill current legislation requirements (AU)

[On the exercise of health authority: principles, regulations and uncertainty]. / El ejercicio de la autoridad sanitaria: los principios, lo reglamentado y la incertidumbre.

Implementing health authority is a basic public health service. Part of the responsibility of public health managers is to ensure compliance with regulations. These are developed when certain risks are considered inadmissible. Mostly, the exercise of health authority deals with the routine application of detailed norms, although there is always some uncertainty, as shown by the frequent use of cautionary measures by health officers during inspections. However, epidemiologic surveillance periodically involves situations in which human health is damaged and there is no reference regulation; in these situations, health authorities must act according to their own criteria, weighing the risks of intervention against those of nonintervention. In this article, we present 3 such scenarios: using coercion in the treatment of patients with smear-positive tuberculosis, regulation of activities with soy beans posing asthma risks, and setting limits to the professional activity of an HIV-positive physician.

El ejercicio de la autoridad sanitaria: los principios, lo reglamentado y la incertidumbre / On the exercise of health authority: principles, regulations and uncertainty

El ejercicio de la autoridad sanitaria es un servicio básico de la salud pública. Parte de la responsabilidad de los gestores de la salud pública es hacer cumplir normas. Éstas se desarrollan cuando se dan circunstancias que llevan a considerar inadmisibles ciertos riesgos. El grueso del ejercicio de la autoridad sanitaria se basa en la aplicación relativamente sistemática de normativas detalladas de referencia, aunque siempre hay cierta incertidumbre, ejemplificada en la frecuente adopción de medidas cautelares por un inspector sanitario aplicando el principio de precaución. Pero la vigilancia epidemiológica plantea de forma intermitente situaciones de afectación de la salud humana sin normas de referencia, en las que la autoridad sanitaria debe actuar según su criterio, contrapesando los riesgos de intervenir con los de no actuar. En este manuscrito presentamos 3 casos de este tipo: la coerción en el tratamiento de enfermos con tuberculosis bacilífera; la regulación de actividades con haba de soja que plantean riesgos de asma; y la limitación del ejercicio profesional de un médico infectado por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana

Implementing health authority is a basic public health service. Part of the responsibility of public health managers is to ensure compliance with regulations. These are developed when certain risks are considered inadmissible. Mostly, the exercise of health authority deals with the routine application of detailed norms, although there is always some uncertainty, as shown by the frequent use of cautionary measures by health officers during inspections. However, epidemiologic surveillance periodically involves situations in which human health is damaged and there is no reference regulation; in these situations, health authorities must act according to their own criteria, weighing the risks of intervention against those of nonintervention. In this article, we present 3 such scenarios: using coercion in the treatment of patients with smear-positive tuberculosis, regulation of activities with soy beans posing asthma risks, and setting limits to the professional activity of an HIV-positive physician

[The Balanced Scorecard as a management tool in a public health organization]. / El Cuadro de Mando Integral como instrumento de dirección en una organización de salud pública.

OBJECTIVE: The Balanced Scorecard is a tool for strategic planning in business. We present our experience after introducing this instrument in a public health agency to align daily management practice with strategic objectives. METHODS: Our management team required deep discussions with external support to clarify the concepts behind the Balanced Scorecard, adapt them to a public organization in the health field distinct from the business sector in which the Balanced Scorecard was designed, and adopt this instrument as a management tool. This process led to definition of the Balanced Scorecard by our Management Committee in 2002, the subsequent evaluation of the degree to which its objectives had been reached, and its periodic redefinition. In addition, second-level Balanced Scorecards were defined for different divisions and services within the agency. The adoption of the Balanced Scorecard by the management team required prior effort to clarify who are the stockholders and who are the clients of a public health organization. The agency's activity and production were also analyzed and a key processes model was defined. Although it is hard to attribute specific changes to a single cause, we believe several improvements in management can be ascribed, at least in part, to the use of the Balanced Scorecard. CONCLUSION: The systematic use of the Balanced Scorecard produced greater cohesion in the management team and the entire organization and brought the strategic objectives closer to daily management operations. The organization is more attentive to its clients, has taken steps to improve its most complex cross-sectional processes, and has developed further actions for the development and growth of its officers and its entire personnel. At the same time, its management team is more in tune with the needs of the agency's administrative bodies that compose its governing board.

El Cuadro de Mando Integral como instrumento de dirección en una organización de salud pública / The Balanced Scorecard as a management tool in a public health organization

Objetivos: El Cuadro de Mando Integral (CMI, o Balanced Scorecard) es un instrumento para la planificación estratégica de las empresas. Adoptamos su uso en una organización de salud pública para alinear la práctica cotidiana de la dirección con los objetivos más estratégicos. Métodos: Nuestro equipo directivo requirió de discusiones con apoyo externo para clarificar los conceptos subyacentes en el CMI, adaptarlos a una organización sanitaria pública distinta del medio empresarial para el que se diseñó inicialmente y adoptarlo como instrumento de dirección. Esto llevó a la construcción de un CMI por el Comité de Dirección en el año 2002, a la posterior evaluación y a su reformulación periódica. Además, se han formulado CMI de segundo nivel para diversas direcciones y servicios de la organización. La adopción del CMI por el equipo directivo comportó un esfuerzo previo de clarificación sobre quiénes son los accionistas y los clientes de una organización pública como la nuestra. También llevó a realizar un análisis de la actividad realizada y de su producción, así como un modelo de procesos. Aunque es difícil atribuir determinados cambios a una causa concreta, creemos que diversas mejoras de gestión introducidas se pueden relacionar, al menos parcialmente, con su uso. Conclusión: El uso sistemático del CMI ha permitido cohesionar mejor el equipo de dirección y el conjunto de la organización, e impregnar la gestión cotidiana con los objetivos más estratégicos. La organización ha integrado mejor los elementos relacionados con sus clientes, ha iniciado acciones para mejorar los procesos internos transversales más complejos, y ha desarrollado de manera más sistemática y general los elementos orientados al crecimiento y desarrollo de sus cuadros y de todo el personal. Al mismo tiempo, los directivos han pasado a tener más presentes las necesidades de las administraciones titulares de la agencia que conforman sus órganos de gobierno

Objective: The Balanced Scorecard is a tool for strategic planning in business. We present our experience after introducing this instrument in a public health agency to align daily management practice with strategic objectives. Methods: Our management team required deep discussions with external support to clarify the concepts behind the Balanced Scorecard, adapt them to a public organization in the health field distinct from the business sector in which the Balanced Scorecard was designed, and adopt this instrument as a management tool. This process led to definition of the Balanced Scorecard by our Management Committee in 2002, the subsequent evaluation of the degree to which its objectives had been reached, and its periodic redefinition. In addition, second-level Balanced Scorecards were defined for different divisions and services within the agency. The adoption of the Balanced Scorecard by the management team required prior effort to clarify who are the stockholders and who are the clients of a public health organization. The agency's activity and production were also analyzed and a key processes model was defined. Although it is hard to attribute specific changes to a single cause, we believe several improvements in management can be ascribed, at least in part, to the use of the Balanced Scorecard. Conclusion: The systematic use of the Balanced Scorecard produced greater cohesion in the management team and the entire organization and brought the strategic objectives closer to daily management operations. The organization is more attentive to its clients, has taken steps to improve its most complex cross-sectional processes, and has developed further actions for the development and growth of its officers and its entire personnel. At the same time, its management team is more in tune with the needs of the agency's administrative bodies that compose its governing board

La organización de la salud pública en un contexto federal. Aportaciones desde la perspectiva de Estados Unidos / The organization of public health in the USA: a federal model

Este trabajo analiza la estructura de los servicios de salud pública en Estados Unidos. Pretende aportar la perspectiva de una organización federal de la salud pública con más de 200 años de historia, que puede ser de utilidad en el actual contexto español. La información se ha obtenido a partir de la realización de entrevistas con personas clave de los tres niveles de la administración pública (federal, estatal y local), así como con académicos (muchos de los cuales han sido directives del sistema de salud pública). Se presta especial atención a la organización, financiación y actividades de los departamentos de salud pública locales y de los estados, así como a los esquemas de relación entre ambos. Se comentan las implicaciones para un país como España, que ha pasado en poco tiempo de una estructura muy centralizada a una estructura descentralizada en 17 comunidades autónomas (AU)

The present article analyzes the structure of public health services in the USA. It aims to describe the perspective of 200 years of a federal organization of public health services, which could be useful in the current context in Spain. Information was obtained by interviews with key informants from the three levels of government (federal, state, and local) and with academics (many of whom had previous experience as public health officers). Special attention is paid to the organization, financing and activities of local and state health departments, as well as to the relationships between these departments. The implications for a country like Spain, which has evolved in a short period from a highly centralized system to a decentralized system based on 17 Autonomous Communities, is discussed (AU)

Políticas para reducir el daño causado por el consumo de alcohol: una aproximación desde la salud pública / Policies to reduce harm caused by alcohol use: a public health perspective

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[The organization of public health in the USA: a federal model]. / La organización de la salud pública en un contexto federal. Aportaciones desde la perspectiva de Estados Unidos.

The present article analyzes the structure of public health services in the USA. It aims to describe the perspective of 200 years of a federal organization of public health services, which could be useful in the current context in Spain. Information was obtained by interviews with key informants from the three levels of government (federal, state, and local) and with academics (many of whom had previous experience as public health officers). Special attention is paid to the organization, financing and activities of local and state health departments, as well as to the relationships between these departments. The implications for a country like Spain, which has evolved in a short period from a highly centralized system to a decentralized system based on 17 Autonomous Communities, is discussed.

Dimensionando los hechos: la encuesta (II) / Giving data a dimension: the survey (II)

Los estudios cualitativos son imprescindibles para llegar a conocer los "qué", los "por qué" o los "cómo". No obstante esta información, esencial por otra parte, debe ser complementada mediante su cuantificación. Necesitamos conocer los "cuánto", "cuántas veces" o "con qué intensidad". Éste es el objetivo de la encuesta como herramienta cuantitativa. El cuestionario es, por lo tanto, un instrumento de medida de una realidad determinada. En un artículo anterior1 se revisaron los conceptos generales relacionados con la encuesta y las características, los aspectos positivos y negativos de los diversos tipos de realización de una encuesta (telefónica, presencial, postal). En el presente artículo se presta una atención especial al diseño de encuesta, esto es: la selección de los ítems a tratar, la formulación de preguntas, los diversos formatos de respuesta (abiertas, Thurstone, Osgood, Likert, etc.), y se incide en la imprescindible validación de los cuestionarios, puesto que se trata de herramientas de medida, especialmente en cuanto a comprensión, fiabilidad, validez y buena adaptación cultural

Qualitative studies are essential to determine "what?", "why?" and "how?" This essential information must be complemented by measures of its quantification. We also need to know "how much?", "with what frequency?" and "with what intensity?". The aim of this study was to evaluate the survey as a quantitative tool. The questionnaire is, therefore, an instrument of measurement of a certain reality. In a previous study1 we reviewed the general concepts of surveys, their characteristics, and the positive and negative features of distinct ways of performing them (telephone, face-to-face, postal, etc.). The present study pays special attention to the questionnaire design, i.e., to the selection of items to be included, the formulation of questions, and the diverse answer formats (open, Thurstone, Osgood, Likert, etc.). An essential element of questionnaires is their validation, as a measurement tool, especially validation of comprehension, reliability, validity and cultural adaptation

[On the clients of public health organizations]. / Acerca de los clientes de las organizaciones de salud pública.

Public services must satisfy a variety of agents: users of these services, the citizens who pay the taxes that finance them, politicians, and those that work in them. To obtain public services that give priority to the citizen-user, knowledge of clients, their expectations, preferences, complaints and degree of satisfaction is essential. This article presents the process of internal discussion in our agency about its clients, who differ from those of an industrial or commercial organization. A proposal for the classification of clients, as well as the process that has led to a client portfolio, are presented and steps to improve services from the perspective of the client are suggested.