Dynamical and Biological Panspermia Constraints Within Multi-planet Exosystems.

As discoveries of multiple planets in the habitable zone of their parent star mount, developing analytical techniques to quantify extrasolar intra-system panspermia will become increasingly important. Here, we provide user-friendly prescriptions that describe the asteroid impact characteristics which would be necessary to transport life both inwards and outwards within these systems within a single framework. Our focus is on projectile generation and delivery and our expressions are algebraic, eliminating the need for the solution of differential equations. We derive a probability distribution function for life-bearing debris to reach a planetary orbit, and describe the survival of micro-organisms during planetary ejection, their journey through interplanetary space, and atmospheric entry.

Central cell-derived peptides regulate early embryo patterning in flowering plants.

Plant embryogenesis initiates with the establishment of an apical-basal axis; however, the molecular mechanisms accompanying this early event remain unclear. Here, we show that a small cysteine-rich peptide family is required for formation of the zygotic basal cell lineage and proembryo patterning in Arabidopsis. EMBRYO SURROUNDING FACTOR 1 (ESF1) peptides accumulate before fertilization in central cell gametes and thereafter in embryo-surrounding endosperm cells. Biochemical and structural analyses revealed cleavage of ESF1 propeptides to form biologically active mature peptides. Further, these peptides act in a non-cell-autonomous manner and synergistically with the receptor-like kinase SHORT SUSPENSOR to promote suspensor elongation through the YODA mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Our findings demonstrate that the second female gamete and its sexually derived endosperm regulate early embryonic patterning in flowering plants.

Spatio-temporal expression patterns of Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula defensin-like genes.

Plant genomes contain several hundred defensin-like (DEFL) genes that encode short cysteine-rich proteins resembling defensins, which are well known antimicrobial polypeptides. Little is known about the expression patterns or functions of many DEFLs because most were discovered recently and hence are not well represented on standard microarrays. We designed a custom Affymetrix chip consisting of probe sets for 317 and 684 DEFLs from Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula, respectively for cataloging DEFL expression in a variety of plant organs at different developmental stages and during symbiotic and pathogenic associations. The microarray analysis provided evidence for the transcription of 71% and 90% of the DEFLs identified in Arabidopsis and Medicago, respectively, including many of the recently annotated DEFL genes that previously lacked expression information. Both model plants contain a subset of DEFLs specifically expressed in seeds or fruits. A few DEFLs, including some plant defensins, were significantly up-regulated in Arabidopsis leaves inoculated with Alternaria brassicicola or Pseudomonas syringae pathogens. Among these, some were dependent on jasmonic acid signaling or were associated with specific types of immune responses. There were notable differences in DEFL gene expression patterns between Arabidopsis and Medicago, as the majority of Arabidopsis DEFLs were expressed in inflorescences, while only a few exhibited root-enhanced expression. By contrast, Medicago DEFLs were most prominently expressed in nitrogen-fixing root nodules. Thus, our data document salient differences in DEFL temporal and spatial expression between Arabidopsis and Medicago, suggesting distinct signaling routes and distinct roles for these proteins in the two plant species.

Epigenetic reprogramming in plant reproductive lineages.

Monoecious flowering plants produce both microgametophytes (pollen) and megagametophytes (embryo sacs) containing the male and female gametes, respectively, which participate in double fertilization. Much is known about cellular and developmental processes giving rise to these reproductive structures and the formation of gametes. However, little is known about the role played by changes in the epigenome in dynamically shaping these defining events during plant sexual reproduction. This has in part been hampered by the inaccessibility of these structures-especially the female gametes, which are embedded within the female reproductive tissues of the plant sporophyte. However, with the recent development of new cellular isolation technologies that can be coupled to next-generation sequencing, a new wave of epigenomic studies indicate that an intricate epigenetic regulation takes place during the formation of male and female reproductive lineages. In this mini review, we assess the fast growing body of evidence for the epigenetic regulation of the developmental fate and function of plant gametes. We describe how small interfereing RNAs and DNA methylation machinery play a part in setting up unique epigenetic landscapes in different gametes, which may be responsible for their different fates and functions during fertilization. Collectively these studies will shed light on the dynamic epigenomic landscape of plant gametes or 'epigametes' and help to answer important unresolved questions on the sexual reproduction of flowering plants, especially those underpinning the formation of two products of fertilization, the embryo and the endosperm.

Maternal control of nutrient allocation in plant seeds by genomic imprinting.

Imprinted genes are commonly expressed in mammalian placentas and in plant seed endosperms, where they exhibit preferential uniparental allelic expression. In mammals, imprinted genes directly regulate placental function and nutrient distribution from mother to fetus; however, none of the >60 imprinted genes thus far reported in plants have been demonstrated to play an equivalent role in regulating the flow of resources to the embryo. Here we show that imprinted Maternally expressed gene1 (Meg1) in maize is both necessary and sufficient for the establishment and differentiation of the endosperm nutrient transfer cells located at the mother:seed interface. Consistent with these findings, Meg1 also regulates maternal nutrient uptake, sucrose partitioning, and seed biomass yield. In addition, we generated an imprinted and nonimprinted synthetic Meg1 ((syn)Meg1) dosage series whereby increased dosage and absence of imprinting both resulted in an unequal investment of maternal resources into the endosperm. These findings highlight dosage regulation by genomic imprinting as being critical for maintaining a balanced distribution of maternal nutrients to filial tissues in plants, as in mammals. However, unlike in mammals, Meg1 is a maternally expressed imprinted gene that surprisingly acts to promote rather than restrict nutrient allocation to the offspring.

Heterosis in early seed development: a comparative study of F1 embryo and endosperm tissues 6 days after fertilization.

Heterosis specifies the superior performance of heterozygous individuals and although used in plant breeding the underlying molecular mechanisms still remain largely elusive. In this study, we demonstrate the manifestation of heterosis in hybrid maize embryo and endosperm tissue 6 days after fertilization in crosses of several inbred lines. We provide a comparative analysis of heterosis-associated gene expression in these tissues by a combined approach of suppression subtractive hybridization and microarray hybridizations. Non-additive expression pattern indicated a trans-regulatory mechanism to act early after fertilization in hybrid embryo and endosperm although the majority of genes showed mid-parental expression levels in embryo and dosage dependent expression levels in endosperm. The consistent expression pattern within both tissues and both inbred line genotype combinations of genes coding for chromatin related proteins pointed to heterosis-related epigenetic processes. These and genes involved in other biological processes, identified in this study, might provide entry points for the investigation of regulatory networks associated with the specification of heterosis.

When genomes collide: aberrant seed development following maize interploidy crosses.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The results of wide- or interploidy crosses in angiosperms are unpredictable and often lead to seed abortion. The consequences of reciprocal interploidy crosses have been explored in maize in detail, focusing on alterations to tissue domains in the maize endosperm, and changes in endosperm-specific gene expression. METHODS: Following reciprocal interploidy crosses between diploid and tetraploid maize lines, development of endosperm domains was studied using GUS reporter lines, and gene expression in resulting kernels was investigated using semi-quantitative RT-PCR on endosperms isolated at different stages of development. KEY RESULTS: Reciprocal interploidy crosses result in very small, largely infertile seeds with defective endosperms. Seeds with maternal genomic excess are smaller than those with paternal genomic excess, their endosperms cellularize earlier and they accumulate significant quantities of starch. Endosperms from the reciprocal cross undergo an extended period of cell proliferation, and accumulate little starch. Analysis of reporter lines and gene expression studies confirm that functional domains of the endosperm are severely disrupted, and are modified differently according to the direction of the interploidy cross. CONCLUSIONS: Interploidy crosses affect factors which regulate the balance between cell proliferation and cell differentiation within the endosperm. In particular, unbalanced crosses in maize affect transfer cell differentiation, and lead to the temporal deregulation of the ontogenic programme of endosperm development.

Abscisic acid and stress signals induce Viviparous1 expression in seed and vegetative tissues of maize.

Viviparous1 (Vp1) encodes a B3 domain-containing transcription factor that is a key regulator of seed maturation in maize (Zea mays). However, the mechanisms of Vp1 regulation are not well understood. To examine physiological factors that may regulate Vp1 expression, transcript levels were monitored in maturing embryos placed in culture under different conditions. Expression of Vp1 decreased after culture in hormone-free medium, but was induced by salinity or osmotic stress. Application of exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) also induced transcript levels within 1 h in a dose-dependent manner. The Vp1 promoter fused to beta-glucuronidase or green fluorescent protein reproduced the endogenous Vp1 expression patterns in transgenic maize plants and also revealed previously unknown expression domains of Vp1. The Vp1 promoter is active in the embryo and aleurone cells of developing seeds and, upon drought stress, was also found in phloem cells of vegetative tissues, including cobs, leaves, and stems. Sequence analysis of the Vp1 promoter identified a potential ABA-responsive complex, consisting of an ACGT-containing ABA response element (ABRE) and a coupling element 1-like motif. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay confirmed that the ABRE and putative coupling element 1 components specifically bound proteins in embryo nuclear protein extracts. Treatment of embryos in hormone-free Murashige and Skoog medium blocked the ABRE-protein interaction, whereas exogenous ABA or mannitol treatment restored this interaction. Our data support a model for a VP1-dependent positive feedback mechanism regulating Vp1 expression during seed maturation.

empty pericarp4 encodes a mitochondrion-targeted pentatricopeptide repeat protein necessary for seed development and plant growth in maize.

The pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) family represents one of the largest gene families in plants, with >440 members annotated in Arabidopsis thaliana. PPR proteins are thought to have a major role in the regulation of posttranscriptional processes in organelles. Recent studies have shown that Arabidopsis PPR proteins play an essential, nonredundant role during embryogenesis. Here, we demonstrate that mutations in empty pericarp4 (emp4), a maize (Zea mays) PPR-encoding gene, confer a seed-lethal phenotype. Mutant endosperms are severely impaired, with highly irregular differentiation of transfer cells in the nutrient-importing basal endosperm. Analysis of homozygous mutant plants generated from embryo-rescue experiments indicated that emp4 also affects general plant growth. The emp4-1 mutation was identified in an active Mutator (Mu) population, and cosegregation analysis revealed that it arose from a Mu3 element insertion. Evidence of emp4 molecular cloning was provided by the isolation of four additional emp4 alleles obtained by a reverse genetics approach. emp4 encodes a novel type of PPR protein of 614 amino acids. EMP4 contains nine 35-amino acid PPR motifs and an N-terminal mitochondrion-targeted sequence peptide, which was confirmed by a translational EMP4-green fluorescent protein fusion that localized to mitochondria. Molecular analyses further suggest that EMP4 is necessary to regulate the correct expression of a small subset of mitochondrial transcripts in the endosperm.

Maternal gametophytic baseless1 is required for development of the central cell and early endosperm patterning in maize (Zea mays).

In angiosperms, double fertilization of an egg cell and a central cell with two sperm cells results in the formation of a seed containing a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm. The extent to which the embryo sac controls postfertilization events in the seed is unknown. The novel gametophytic maternal-effect maize mutation, baseless1 (bsl1) affects central cell development within the embryo sac, frequently by altering the position of the two polar nuclei. Despite this irregularity, fertilization is as efficient as in wild type. The spatial expression of basal endosperm-specific transcripts is altered in free-nuclear and cellular mutant endosperms. At later stages of seed development, bsl1 predominantly affects development of the basal endosperm transfer layer (BETL). When bsl1/+ diploid plants were pollinated by wild-type tetraploid plants, the BETL abnormalities observed in bsl1/bsl1/+/+ tetraploid endosperms were diverse and of variable severity. Moreover, the frequency of kernels with severely perturbed BETL development correlated with the percentage of severely affected bsl1 central cells. Therefore, BSL1 is likely required in the central cell before fertilization for correct BETL patterning to occur. These findings provide new genetic evidence that a maternal gametophytic component is necessary for correct endosperm patterning.

Epigenetic asymmetry of imprinted genes in plant gametes.

Plant imprinted genes show parent-of-origin expression in seed endosperm, but little is known about the nature of parental imprints in gametes before fertilization. We show here that single differentially methylated regions (DMRs) correlate with allele-specific expression of two maternally expressed genes in the seed and that one DMR is differentially methylated between gametes. Thus, plants seem to have developed similar strategies as mammals to epigenetically mark imprinted genes.

Construction and screening of subtracted cDNA libraries from limited populations of plant cells: a comparative analysis of gene expression between maize egg cells and central cells.

The analysis of cell type-specific gene expression is an essential step in understanding certain biological processes during plant development, such as differentiation. Although methods for isolating specific cell types have been established, the application of cDNA subtraction to small populations of isolated cell types for direct identification of specific or differentially expressed transcripts has not yet been reported. As a first step in the identification of genes expressed differentially between maize egg cells and central cells, we have manually isolated these types of cell, and applied a suppression-subtractive hybridization (SSH) strategy. After microarray screening of 1030 cDNAs obtained from the subtracted libraries, we identified 340 differentially expressed clones. Of these, 142 were sequenced, which resulted in the identification of 62 individual cDNAs. The expression patterns of 20 cDNAs were validated by quantitative RT-PCR, through which we identified five transcripts with cell type-specific expression. The specific localization of some of these transcripts was also confirmed by in situ hybridization on embryo sac sections. Taken together, our data demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach in identifying differentially expressed and cell type-specific transcripts of relatively low abundance. This was also confirmed by the identification of previously reported egg cell- and central cell-specific genes in our screen. Importantly, from our analysis we identified a significant number of novel sequences not present in other embryo sac or, indeed, in other plant expressed sequence tag (EST) databases. Thus, in combination with standard EST sequencing and microarray hybridization strategies, our approach of differentially screening subtracted cDNAs will add substantially to the expression information in spatially highly resolved transcriptome analyses.

Isolation and characterization of a polymorphic stigma-specific class III peroxidase gene from Senecio squalidus L. (Asteraceae).

A novel stigma-specific class III peroxidase gene, SSP (Stigma-Specific Peroxidase), has been isolated from the self-incompatible daisy Senecio squalidus L. (Asteraceae). Expression of SSP in flower buds is developmentally regulated, with maximal levels of expression coinciding with anthesis, when stigmas are most receptive to pollen and when self-incompatibility is fully developed. In situ hybridization revealed SSP expression to be localized exclusively to the specialized secretory epidermal cells (papillae) of the stigma, which receive and discriminate pollen. SSP is therefore the first tissue-specific and cell-specific peroxidase gene identified in a plant. SSP belongs to a distinct clade of class III plant peroxidases that possess two introns, instead of the more normal situation of three conserved introns. The deduced amino acid sequence of SSP revealed a 27 amino acid signal peptide, suggesting that the SSP protein is secreted to the cell wall of the stigmatic papillae. In-gel peroxidase activity assays showed that SSP has relatively low peroxidase activity compared to other, as yet uncharacterized, peroxidases present in stigmatic extracts. Six SSP alleles have been cloned from different lines of S. squalidus carrying a range of self-incompatibility (S)-alleles but there was no consistent association between the presence of a particular SSP allele and S-genotype indicating that SSP is not the female determinant of SSI in S. squalidus. Nevertheless, the precise expression of SSP in stigmatic papillae suggests that it may have a more general function in pollen-stigma interactions, or alternatively in protection of stigmas from pathogen attack. Extensive database screens have identified homologues of SSP in other plant species, but available expression data for these genes indicates that none are flower-specific, suggesting that SSP represents a new functional type of class III peroxidase specific to the stigma. We discuss the possible function(s) of S. squalidus SSP in pollen-stigma interactions and in protection of stigmas from pathogen attack.

The Elm1 (ZmHy2) gene of maize encodes a phytochromobilin synthase.

The light insensitive maize (Zea mays) mutant elongated mesocotyl1 (elm1) has previously been shown to be deficient in the synthesis of the phytochrome chromophore 3E-phytochromobilin (PPhiB). To identify the Elm1 gene, a maize homolog of the Arabidopsis PPhiB synthase gene AtHY2 was isolated and designated ZmHy2. ZmHy2 encodes a 297-amino acid protein of 34 kD that is 50% identical to AtHY2. ZmHY2 was predicted to be plastid localized and was targeted to chloroplasts following transient expression in tobacco (Nicotiana plumbaginifolia) leaves. Molecular mapping indicated that ZmHy2 is a single copy gene in maize that is genetically linked to the Elm1 locus. Sequence analysis revealed that the ZmHy2 gene of elm1 mutants contains a single G to A transition at the 3' splice junction of intron III resulting in missplicing and premature translational termination. However, flexibility in the splicing machinery allowed a small pool of in-frame ZmHy2 transcripts to accumulate in elm1 plants. In addition, multiple ZmHy2 transcript forms accumulated in both wild-type and elm1 mutant plants. ZmHy2 splice variants were expressed in Escherichia coli and products examined for activity using a coupled apophytochrome assembly assay. Only full-length ZmHY2 (as defined by homology to AtHY2) was found to exhibit PPhiB synthase activity. Thus, the elm1 mutant of maize is deficient in phytochrome response due to a lesion in a gene encoding phytochromobilin synthase that severely compromises the PPhiB pool.

maternally expressed gene1 Is a novel maize endosperm transfer cell-specific gene with a maternal parent-of-origin pattern of expression.

Growth of the maize (Zea mays) endosperm is tightly regulated by maternal zygotic and sporophytic genes, some of which are subject to a parent-of-origin effect. We report here a novel gene, maternally expressed gene1 (meg1), which shows a maternal parent-of-origin expression pattern during early stages of endosperm development but biallelic expression at later stages. Interestingly, a stable reporter fusion containing the meg1 promoter exhibits a similar pattern of expression. meg1 is exclusively expressed in the basal transfer region of the endosperm. Further, we show that the putatively processed MEG1 protein is glycosylated and subsequently localized to the labyrinthine ingrowths of the transfer cell walls. Hence, the discovery of a parent-of-origin gene expressed solely in the basal transfer region opens the door to epigenetic mechanisms operating in the endosperm to regulate certain aspects of nutrient trafficking from the maternal tissue into the developing seed.

The globby1-1 (glo1-1) mutation disrupts nuclear and cell division in the developing maize seed causing alterations in endosperm cell fate and tissue differentiation.

Cereal endosperm tissues account for most of the world's calorific intake, yet the regulation of monocot seed development remains poorly understood. The maize endosperm originates with a series of free-nuclear divisions, followed by cellularisation and subsequent formation of a range of functional cellular domains. We describe the isolation and characterisation of a mutation that induces aberrant globular embryo and endosperm morphology, globby1-1 (glo1-1). Our data indicate that glo1-1 plays a role in nuclear division and cytokinesis in the developing seed. Pattern formation in the embryo is severely impaired with development arresting at premature stages, while in the endosperm, the effects of the glo1-1 mutation are manifest at the free-nuclear or syncytial stage. During cellularisation, and at later stages of development, aberrant cell division and localised domains of cell proliferation are apparent in glo1-1 endosperms. As a consequence, cell fate acquisition and subsequent differentiation of endosperm tissues are affected to varying degrees of severity. To date, it has been hypothesised that BETL cell fate is specified in the syncytium and that cell files subsequently develop in response to a gradient of signal(s) derived from the maternal pedicel region. Based on our findings, however, we propose that specification of BETL cells is an irreversible event that occurs within a narrow window of syncytial development, and that BETL cell identity is subsequently inherited in a lineage-dependent manner. Additionally, our data suggest that acquisition of aleurone cell fate does not solely rely upon signalling from the maternal surrounding tissue to the periphery of the endosperm, as previously thought, but that other factor(s) present within the endosperm are involved.

Imprinting in the endosperm: a possible role in preventing wide hybridization.

Reproductive isolation is considered to play a key part in evolution, and plants and animals have developed a range of strategies that minimize gene flow between species. In plants, these strategies involve either pre-zygotic barriers, such as differences in floral structure and pollen-stigma recognition, or post-zygotic barriers, which are less well understood and affect aspects of seed development ranging from fertilization to maturation. In most angiosperms, a double fertilization event gives rise to a zygote and the endosperm: a triploid tissue with an unequal parental genomic contribution, which, like the placenta of mammals, provides reserves to the developing embryo. Interestingly, many aspects of endosperm development, again like the placenta, are regulated by a range of epigenetic mechanisms that are globally termed imprinting. Imprinted genes are characterized by their uniparental expression, the other parental allele being silenced. Normal development of the endosperm thus requires a highly specific balance of gene expression, from either the maternal or paternal genomes. Any alteration of this balance resulting from changes in allelic copy number, sequence or epigenetic imprints can cause endosperm failure and eventual seed abortion. In its widest sense, the endosperm thus serves as an accurate 'sensor' of compatibility between parents. A first step in understanding this important, yet complex system must clearly be the isolation and characterization of as wide a range as possible of imprinted genes.

ZmEBE genes show a novel, continuous expression pattern in the central cell before fertilization and in specific domains of the resulting endosperm after fertilization.

Two novel maize genes expressed specifically in the central cell of the female gametophyte and in two compartments of the endosperm (the basal endosperm transfer layer and the embryo surrounding region) were characterized. The ZmEBE (embryo sac/basal endosperm transfer layer/embryo surrounding region) genes were isolated by a differential display between the upper and the lower half of the kernel at 7 days after pollination (DAP). Sequence analysis revealed ORFs coding for two closely related proteins of 304 amino acids (ZmEBE-1) and 286 amino acids (ZmEBE-2). This size difference was due to differences in the splicing of the two genes. Both protein sequences showed significant similarity to the DUF239 family of Arabidopsis, a group of 22 proteins of unknown function, a small number of which are putative peptidases. ZmEBE genes had a novel cell type-specific expression pattern in the central cell before and the resulting endosperm after fertilization. RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression of both genes started before pollination in the central cell and continued in the kernel up to 20 DAP with a peak at 7 DAP. In situ hybridization revealed that the expression in the kernel was restricted to the basal transfer cell layer and the embryo surrounding region of the endosperm. The expression of ZmEBE-1 was at least 10 times lower than that of ZmEBE-2. Similarly to other genes expressed in the endosperm, ZmEBE-1 expression was subject to a parent-of-origin effect, while no such effect was detected in ZmEBE-2. Sequence analysis of upstream regions revealed a potential cis element of 33 bp repeated 7 times in ZmEBE-1 and ZmEBE-2 between positions -900 and -100. The 1.6 kb ZmEBE-2 upstream sequence containing the seven R7 elements was able to confer expression in the basal endosperm to a Gus reporter gene. These data indicate that ZmEBE is potentially involved in the early development of specialized domains of the endosperm and that this process is possibly already initiated in the central cell, which is at the origin of the endosperm.