Selected nuclear LINE elements with mitochondrial-DNA-like inserts are more plentiful and mobile in tumor than in normal tissue of mouse and rat.

The nuclear DNA of normal and tumor mouse and rat tissue was examined for mitochondrial-DNA-like inserts by means of the Southern blot technique. The two probes were 32P-labeled cloned mitochondrial DNA. KpnI, which doesn't cut either mitochondrial DNA, was one of the restriction enzymes, while the enzymes that fragment mitochondrial DNA were for mouse and rat PstI and BamHI, respectively. When KpnI alone was used in the procedure a nuclear LINE family whose elements had mitochondrial-DNA-like insertions was selected. Such elements were much more abundant in tumor than in normal tissue. The results with PstI alone and BamHI alone and each combined with KpnI indicated that there were mobile LINE elements with mitochondrial-DNA-like inserts in the nuclear genome of tumor. The mouse tissues were normal liver and a transplantable lymphoid leukemic ascites cell line L1210 that had been carried for 40 years. The rat tissues were normal liver and a hepatoma freshly induced by diethylnitrosoamine in order to minimize the role of 40 years of transplantation. Our unitary hypothesis for carcinogenesis of 1971, which suggested these experiments, has been augmented to include mobile nuclear elements with inserts of mitochondrial-DNA-like sequences. Such elements have been related to diseases of genetic predisposition such as breast cancer and Huntington's disease.

Mitochondrial D-loop sequences are integrated in the rat nuclear genome.

We have cloned two fragments of rat nuclear DNA (nucDNA), 3.3 x 10(3) nucleotide-pairs (knp) and 9.1 knp, that contain a 0.5 knp section sharing 80% sequence identity with the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) heavy strand origin of replication (D-loop) nascent strand and 88% identity with each other. The light and heavy strand promoters of the D-loop region are not present in either clone, thus they likely do not function as replication origins in the nuclear genome. The nucDNA sequences surrounding the mtDNA-like sequences are not mitochondrial, thus the mtDNA-like sequences are demonstrably covalently linked in the nuclear genome. Indeed, the surrounding nuclear sequences of each clone also share 88% identity. This sequence arrangement strongly suggests an initial insertion of mtDNA into nucDNA with subsequent amplification of an encompassing region of nucDNA. Divergence calculations suggest that the mtDNA insertion occurred around 13.6 million years ago (MYA) with the subsequent separation occurring around 6.5 MYA. The mtDNA-like sequences of the nuclear clones hybridize strongly to a number of different BamHI-PstI restriction fragments, suggesting either repeated integration and/or frequent mutational events producing new restriction enzyme sites. It is not yet known if one or more of the uncloned D-loop-like sequences are associated with promoters, which would suggest possible function. The 3.3 knp nucDNA fragment is present in low copy number. In contrast, the 9.1 knp nucDNA fragment appears to be moderately repeated. The elements do not appear to be tandemly repeated. The nucDNA clones contain remnants of rat long interspersed repetitive element (LINE) sequences; in addition the 9.1 knp fragment contains sequences with similarity to portions of viral reverse transcriptase and RNaseH genes. Until now, all mtDNA-like sequences found in the nuclear genome have been coding sequences. This is the first confirmation by sequence analysis of a portion of the mtDNA control region in the nuclear genome.

Comment: mitochondrial genes and cancer.

As a result of an experimental confluence between carcinogenesis and oxidative phosphorylation, we published in 1971 'A Unitary Hypothesis for Carcinogenesis' [(1971) J. Antibiot. Tokyo 24, 405-417]. According to this hypothesis, damaged mitochondria release mitochondrial genetic material which like that from an oncogenic virus could enter the nuclear genome. Our original hypothesis and its justification cover the hypothesis recently presented by Dr C. Richter [(1988) FEBS Lett. 241, 1-5].

Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA from normal rat liver have a common sequence.

Although Pst I does not cut the circular mitochondrial genome of the rat, BamHI generates from this genome two unequal fragments of DNA. Each of these fragments was cloned in pBR322. Nuclear DNA was digested from rat liver singly or doubly with Pst I and BamHI, and it was demonstrated that nuclear DNA shared a common sequence with the larger mitochondrial DNA BamHI fragment. The cloned larger mitochondrial DNA fragment was further subdivided with HindIII into four pieces that were labeled and then used to probe the double-digested nuclear DNA. The hybridization data showed that the common sequence is less than 3 kilobase pairs long and lies within the part of the mitochondrial genome containing the D-loop and a portion of the rRNA genes. It therefore appears that, as in lower eukaryotes, there are shared sequences between the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in mammals.

The mitochondrial activation of silicate and its role in silicosis, black lung disease and lung cancer.

Silicate substitutes for phosphate in the transitory uncoupling of rat liver mitochondria induced by hydrazine when beta-hydroxy-butyrate is the substrate. Uncoupling is blocked by rutamycin. Just as in the case when phosphate is combined with hydrazine, ATP, ADP, PPi, and Mg++ protect against hydrazine when silicate is combined with hydrazine. A high level of ADP in the absence of added phosphate, but in the presence of silicate, induces a pseudo state three of the mitochondria. Silicate, like sulfate and arsenate which have been reported previously, is activated by the enzymes which mediate oxidative phosphorylation. These results serve to explain a role for silicate in silicosis, black lung disease, and cancer. In addition, since there is suggestive evidence in the literature that lung tissue solubilizes asbestos fibers, these results not only expand the confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis but are correlated with the synergistic carcinogenicity of asbestos and smoking observed by epidemiologists.

The mitochondrial activation of sulfate and arsenate and their role in carcinogenesis.

Sulfate substitutes for phosphate in the transitory uncoupling of rat liver mitochondria induced by hydrazine when beta-hydroxybutyrate is the substrate. A high level of sulfate in the absence of added phosphate induces a pseudo state three of the mitochondria. Uncoupling is inhibited by rutamycin. Thus sulfate is activated by the mechanism usually utilized by phosphate, and the target for hydrazine is the bond holding electrophilic sulfate. ATP, ADP, PPi, and Mg++ protect against hydrazine, presumably by causing a conformational change of the phosphorylating enzymes which participate in oxidative phosphorylation. Arsenate also could substitute for phosphate in the transitory uncoupling induced by hydrazine. Uncoupling is again inhibited by rutamycin; thus arsenate is also activated by the enzymic mechanism usually utilized by phosphate. Since sulfate is known to enhance the carcinogenicity of certain carcinogens, these results expand the experimental confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis and also serve to explain at least in part the "toxic" effects of sulfate. Because of the analogous results with arsenate and sulfate, it is suggested that arsenate, like sulfate, may enhance the carcinogenicity of other carcinogens. The data are compatible with epidemiological studies which implicate some role in carcinogenesis for sulfate (often measured as a sulfur dioxide equivalent) and arsenate.

The disturbance of oxidative phosphorylation in rat liver mitochondria by the carcinogens 12-hydroxystearic acid and its methyl ester.

In a search to determine common molecular features in potential carcinogenic dietary fatty acids, Swern et al. (1970) found that 12-hydroxystearic acid and its methyl ester were carcinogenic. This was surprising to Swern et al. (1970) and Van Duuren et al. (1972), as it was not readily apparent how such agents could be converted to alkylating agents. We have observed that the carcinogens 12-hydroxystearic acid and its methyl ester disrupted oxidative phosphorylation in rat liver mitochondria. The in vitro mitochondrial effects induced by the agents included: a) uncoupled respiration, b) ATPase activity, c) energized volume changes linked either to respiration or ATP. Mitochondria mediated the enzymic conversion of the ester to the acid. Conversion was retarded by the thiol reagent showdomycin. These data in conjuction with our previous reports dealing with other carcinogens and their derivatives contribute to an experimental confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis.

A requirement of Pi for the transitory uncoupling of rat liver mitochondria by hydrazine, when beta-hydroxybutyrate is the substrate.

We have recognized an experimental confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis and, therefore, became interested in the mitochondrial target of hydrazine, which is not only a potential environmental hazard as a carcinogen but is also a likely metabolite of many drugs. Hydrazine induced a Pi dependent transitory uncoupling of rat liver mitochondria when beta-hydroxybutyrate was the substrate. Uncoupling was inhibited by rutamycin; accordingly, the mitochondrial target for nucleophilic hydrazine is an electrophilic site, presumably involving activated Pi. The protective action of ATP2, ADP, PPi and Mg++ was attributed to a conformational change of the phosphorylating enzyme which participated in oxidative phosphorylation. In a mitochondrial system which included ATP gramicidin potassium ion and sulfate, hydrazine, acting as a large cation but not as a nucleophile, blocked mitochondrial swelling and the increment in ATPase activity associated with potassium ion. These data in conjunction with our previous reports dealing with other carcinogens and certain of their derivatives also contribute to an experimental confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis and are compatible with toxic effects of hydrazine on mitochondria observed previously by others.

The in vitro interaction of the carcinogens, 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide and its metabolite 4-hydroxylaminoquinoline-N-oxide, with intact rat liver mitochondria.

The inhibition of rat liver mitochondrial respiration caused by rotenone, is relieved by the 2 carcinogens, 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide (NQO) and its metabolite 4-hydroxylaminoquinoline-N-oxide (HAQO). Thus these agents cause reducing equivalents to circumvent the first coupling site of the respiratory chain. This is another example of the experimental confluence between oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis.

The immediate uptake of potassium ion by mitochondria requiring gramicidin and 2,2-dimethylsuccinic anhydride.

The addition of 2,2-dimethylsuccinic anhydride to mitochondrial suspensions fortified with gramicidin and potassium ion but without any permeant anion caused an immediate and rapid increase in volume (as indicated by absorbance change at 520 nm) and the uptake of potassium ion (as indicated by a cation-specific electrode). The phenomena was not inhibited by rutamycin but was inhibited by either rotenone, antimycin or 2,4-dinitrophenol. Rotenone inhibition was relieved by succinate thus one of the requirements of the process was energy derived from endogenous substrates. Potassium ion could be replaced by rubidium and cesium ions but not by lithium or sodium ions. Since 2,2-dimethylsuccinate could not replace the anhydride and was not a permeant anion there must also be a requirement for the anhydride bond. The action of the anhydride on the mitochondria must be direct. Only closely related anhydrides were capable of engendering the effect of a highly effective permeant anion.

A new inhibitor of coupled oxidative phosphorylation, 5-hydroxynaphthalenedicarboxylic anhydride, a derivative of a carcinogenic polynuclear hydrocarbon.

5-Hydroxy-1,2-naphthalenedicarboxylic anhydride is closely related to its precursor dibasic acid which is a metabolite of the carcinogenic polynuclear hydrocarbon dibenz[a,h]anthracene. The anhydride inhibited respiration of coupled mitochondria. This inhibition was relieved by 2,4-dinitrophenol. Several mitochondrial volume change processes energized by ATP were also inhibited by the anhydride. Both the mitochondrial ATPase activity induced by 2,4-dinitrophenol and the ATPase activity of submitochondrial particles induced by magnesium ion were inhibited by the anhydride. The spectrum of inhibitory activity was not associated with acetic anhydride, succinic anhydride, or phthalic anhydride. The data indicate that 5-hydroxy-1,2-naphthalenedicarboxylic anhydride inhibits the machinery of oxidative phosphorylation in a manner similar to rutamycin. 5-Hydroxy-1,2-naphthalenedicarboxylic anhydride is the first molecule derived from a carcinogen with such inhibitory properties.

The disturbance of oxidative phosphorylation by N-acetoxy-N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene, a model ultimate carcinogen.

Currently N-acetoxy-N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene is favored by many investigators to be a model of the ultimate electrophilic carcinogenic agent derived metabolically from the carcinogen N-acetyl-2-aminofluprene. The model induced in vitro a delayed ATP energized increase in mitochondrial volume as indicated by the decrease in absorbancy at 520 nm. The ATP energized decrease in absorbancy was inhibited by rutamycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol and a high level of antimycin known to induce ATPase activity. The known to inhibit respiration without inducing ATPase activity. Malate or potassium ion did not affect the phenomenon, however, sulfate ion which has been implicated in liver carcinogenesis shortened the induction period. Showdomycin stimulated the phenomenon. N-Acetoxy-N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene interacts with the machinery of oxidative phosphorylation. N-Acetoxy-N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene was enzymically converted by the mitochondria to N-hydroxy-N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene. These findings extend the experimental confluence of oxidative phosphorylation with carcinogenesis.