Reducing safety behaviors to prevent anxious symptoms: a pre-registered prevention intervention study.

The purpose of this pre-registered study was to test the efficacy of a simple, low-impact safety behavior prevention intervention for anxiety. The intervention was delivered online using a 4-week workbook format. Participants (n = 130) were a non-clinical sample of American college students; they were randomly assigned to one of two intervention conditions: safety-behavior reduction or active control condition (academic skills). Results showed that participants in the safety behavior workbook condition did not report fewer safety behaviors or lower levels of anxiety compared to the active control condition post-intervention. Exploratory analyses found that fidelity mattered; participants who completed all the workbook activities reported a significant decrease in the safety-behaviors relative to the control condition. However, those who reduced their use of safety behaviors reported greater levels of anxiety compared to participants in the control condition who reduced their safety behaviors. These results suggest that encouraging safety behavior reduction in non-clinical samples may have the unintended consequence of maintaining anxiety.

Listening to a popular upbeat song can lead to more adaptive cognitive inferences for stressful events in non-clinical adult populations.

OBJECTIVE: We tested the effect of music on idiographic cognitive inferences about stressful events. METHOD: In Study 1 (n = 336), adult participants from the United States were randomly assigned to non-familiar songs that differed by lyrical content and tempo. In Studies 2 (n = 302) and 3 (n = 323), adult participants from the United States were randomly assigned to either a positive, neutral or no-song condition. RESULTS: The results of Study 1 failed to support any of the study hypotheses. Given the null results, we decided to conduct a second study focused on increasing external validity and power (i.e., including fewer experimental conditions). The results of Study 2 showed that adults randomly assigned to a familiar upbeat song condition experienced an increase in positive affect and a decrease in event-specific negative cognitions. A third study was then conducted to replicate the results and rule out a potential confound. Results of Study 3 corroborated the results of Study 2. CONCLUSION: Taken together (Studies 2 and 3), results indicate it may be useful for future research to test the extent to which familiar upbeat music can be helpful during cognitive restructuring activities in psychotherapy to nudge people to generate more adaptive cognitions.

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Is Not an Improvement Over the DSM.

In their response to our article (both in this issue), DeYoung and colleagues did not sufficiently address three fundamental flaws with the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP). First, HiTOP was created using a simple-structure factor-analytic approach, which does not adequately represent the dimensional space of the symptoms of psychopathology. Consequently, HiTOP is not the empirical structure of psychopathology. Second, factor analysis and dimensional ratings do not fix the problems inherent to descriptive (folk) classification; self-reported symptoms are still the basis on which clinical judgments about people are made. Finally, HiTOP is not ready to use in real-world clinical settings. There is currently no empirical evidence demonstrating that clinicians who use HiTOP have better clinical outcomes than those who use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). In sum, HiTOP is a factor-analytic variation of the DSM that does not get the field closer to a more valid and useful taxonomy.

Psychology needs to get tired of winning.

Psychological science is on an extraordinary winning streak. A review of the published literature shows that nearly all study hypotheses are supported. This means that either all the theories are correct, or the literature is biased towards positive findings. Results from large-scale replication projects and the prevalence of questionable research practices indicate the latter. This is a problem because science progresses from being wrong. For decades, there have been calls for better theories and the adoption of a strong inference approach to science. However, there is little reason to believe that psychological science is ready to change. Although recent developments like the open science movement have improved transparency and replicability, they have not addressed psychological science's method-oriented (rather than problem-oriented) mindset. Psychological science still does not embrace the scientific method of developing theories, conducting critical tests of those theories, detecting contradictory results, and revising (or disposing of) the theories accordingly. In this article, I review why psychologists must embrace being wrong and how the Registered Report format might be one strategy for stopping psychology's winning streak.

Folk Classification and Factor Rotations: Whales, Sharks, and the Problems With the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP).

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) uses factor analysis to group people with similar self-reported symptoms (i.e., like-goes-with-like). It is hailed as a significant improvement over other diagnostic taxonomies. However, the purported advantages and fundamental assumptions of HiTOP have received little, if any scientific scrutiny. We critically evaluated five fundamental claims about HiTOP. We conclude that HiTOP does not demonstrate a high degree of verisimilitude and has the potential to hinder progress on understanding the etiology of psychopathology. It does not lend itself to theory-building or taxonomic evolution, and it cannot account for multifinality, equifinality, or developmental and etiological processes. In its current form, HiTOP is not ready to use in clinical settings and may result in algorithmic bias against underrepresented groups. We recommend a bifurcation strategy moving forward in which the DSM is used in clinical settings while researchers focus on developing a falsifiable theory-based classification system.

Men have ability, women are lucky: A pre-registered experiment examining gender bias in knowledge attribution.

The purpose of this experiment was to test the effect of gender on knowledge attribution using a Justified True Belief (JTB) framework. A 2 (gender: male, female) × 3 (knowledge case: knowledge control, Gettier, ignorance control) experimental design was used with a sample of 420 U.S. adults. Contrary to hypotheses, participants attributed similar levels of knowledge to male and female agents across all knowledge conditions; participants also rated males and females as equally likely to have the 'right' answer across knowledge conditions. However, knowledge was more likely to be attributed to luck (as opposed to ability) for female agents than it was for male agents across knowledge conditions and scenarios. This result suggests that while overt forms of gender bias may be fading, more covert forms still exist. Secondary analyses also showed that the JTB methodology was not robust to scenario type or knowledge condition. Comprehension was affected by both knowledge condition (knowledge vs. Gettier/ignorance) and the specific content of the hypothetical scenario presented (e.g., squirrel vs. jewelery). These confounds should be addressed in future JTB studies as it is possible that differences between knowledge and Gettier cases are due to misunderstanding the scenarios rather than beliefs about knowledge. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Effectiveness of a social problem solving training in youth in detention or on probation: An RCT and pre-post community implementation.

The effectiveness of a 10-session social problem-solving training (SPST) was evaluated in two independent studies in a juvenile justice (JJ) setting. In both studies, we aimed to examine main intervention effects on social problem-solving skills and recidivism, as well as differential effects as modulated by anger, anger regulation, and single nucleotide polymorphisms in the COMT gene. In Study 1, a randomized controlled trial (RCT), 289 male detainees (Mage= 14.95 years) were randomly assigned to SPST or treatment-as-usual (TAU). In Study 2, a pre-post community implementation, 187 youth (Mage = 16.03 years) on probation were assessed before and after SPST. No significant main effects of SPST on social problem solving or recidivism were shown in either study. With regard to differential effects, among youth in detention,COMT haplotypes predicted intervention effects on state anger. Moreover, independent of SPST, inward anger expression was associated with an increase in state anger from pre- to post and an increase in state anger with a decrease in social problem solving. Among youth on probation, COMT haplotypes predicted social problem-solving skills, and, in turn, an increase in social problem-solving skills decreased the odds of recidivism after SPST. The lack of main effects of SPST may be due to low program integrity in JJ settings. Juveniles' emotional and genetic characteristics might modulate the effectiveness of interventions in JJ settings. We recommend studying large samples to substantiate this observation.

Teasing Apart the Effect of Depression Specific and Anxiety Specific Symptoms on Academic Outcomes.

Research shows that adolescents' performance in school can be negatively affected by depression and anxiety. However, past studies have used nonspecific measures of depression and anxiety that preclude researchers from understanding their unique effects. The current study addressed this gap in the literature by teasing apart the effects of depression specific and anxiety specific symptoms on end of semester grade point average (GPA) and the likelihood of dropping a course. We used a 3-month longitudinal design with a sample of 130 United States (U.S.) undergraduates. Results showed that only cumulative GPA and ACT score predicted end of semester GPA. However, high levels of anxiety specific (anxious arousal), but not depression specific (anhedonia), symptoms predicted whether or not a student dropped a course. These results suggest that targeting anxiety specific symptoms in schools may be effective in improving academic outcomes.

A negative cognitive style is associated with greater insomnia and depression symptoms: The mediating role of sleep reactivity.

Insomnia and depression are distinct clinical phenomena, yet they are highly comorbid. One potential explanation for the high comorbidity rates is the overlap in risk factors. Atypical responses to stress, for example, place individuals at greater risk for both insomnia and depression. The goal of the present study was to simultaneously assess vulnerability to stress-related sleep disturbance (sleep reactivity) and the tendency to make negative attributions about stressful events (negative cognitive style), and how they relate to insomnia and depression. Study participants included 224 undergraduate students recruited from a large, public university in the United States. Sleep reactivity and negative cognitive style were assessed using the Ford Insomnia Response to Stress Test (FIRST) and the Cognitive Style Questionnaire (CSQ), respectively. Insomnia symptoms were assessed using the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), and depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Sleep reactivity was independently associated with greater insomnia and depression symptoms. Additionally, a negative cognitive style was related to greater depressive symptoms, and this effect was partially mediated by sleep reactivity. The current findings suggest that sleep reactivity may contribute to the development of disorders beyond insomnia. These findings further support the use of an interdisciplinary approach to investigating etiological models, and more specifically, the further exploration of how multiple stress responses (in terms of cognitions, sleep, etc.) place individuals at greater risk for developing psychopathology.

Preventative and restorative safety behaviors: Effects on exposure treatment outcomes and risk for future anxious symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: Two studies investigated the differential effect of preventative and restorative safety behaviors on the treatment and development of anxiety and depression. METHOD: Study 1 investigated the impact of preventative and restorative safety behaviors in prolonged exposure therapy among US veterans with PTSD (N = 95). Study 2 was a 3-month prospective study investigating preventative and restorative safety behaviors as risk factors for anxious and depressive symptoms in a non-clinical sample (N = 84). RESULTS: The results of Study 1 showed that both preventative and restorative safety behaviors were associated with worse treatment outcomes (both PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms). The results of Study 2 found that preventative, but not restorative, safety behaviors predicted increases in future anxious symptoms. Neither preventative nor restorative safety behaviors conferred risk for increases in future depression symptoms (anhedonia). CONCLUSIONS: Preventative and restorative safety behaviors impact PTSD treatment outcomes, while only preventative safety behaviors predict future anxiety.

Don't sleep on it: Less sleep reduces risk for depressive symptoms in cognitively vulnerable undergraduates.

The current research tested a new theory of depression that integrates work on sleep and cognition. In general, good sleep is essential for physical and mental health. However, we theorize that sleep can actually increase risk for depressive symptoms in cognitively vulnerable individuals. This is because the negative cognitions generated by these individuals are strengthened and consolidated each night during sleep. Three studies were conducted to test this theory. Studies 1 (n = 134) and 2 (n = 47) used prospective designs and showed that undergraduates with high, but not low, levels of cognitive vulnerability were most likely to exhibit increases in depressive symptoms when sleeping well as operationalized by self-reported quality and objectively measured duration (via actigraphy). Study 3 (n = 40) used an experimental design and provides the first causal evidence that it may be possible to prevent future depressive symptoms in cognitively at-risk undergraduates by restricting their sleep during times of high perceived stress. (PsycINFO Database Record

Evaluating a social problem solving intervention for juvenile detainees: Depressive outcomes and moderators of effectiveness.

This study reports findings from the administration of a social problem-solving training (SPST) intervention to juvenile detainees in the Connecticut Youth Detainee Program. SPST is a cognitive behavioral intervention that teaches children and youth how to more effectively cope with interpersonal stress and conflict. In the current study, we tested whether SPST could decrease depressive symptoms in a sample of detained adolescent offenders. The study used a randomized-control design with detention staff administering the intervention. The results showed that SPST, as a main effect, was not more effective in reducing depressive symptoms than treatment as usual. However, the effectiveness of SPST was moderated by fluid intelligence. Juvenile detainees with high intelligence scores were most likely to benefit from SPST compared to treatment as usual. It was surprising that, for those with lower intelligence scores, SPST increased depressive symptoms relative to treatment as usual. These results help fill a critical need for intervention effectiveness data on juvenile detainees and indicate that SPST may not be useful for reducing outcomes such as depression.

The Safety Behavior Assessment Form: Development and Validation.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and validate an easy to administer measure of safety behaviors called the Safety Behavior Assessment Form (SBAF). METHOD: We provide reliability and validity evidence from four studies. The first study used a cross-sectional design with a sample consisting of both clinical (U.S. military Veterans; n = 42) and nonclinical participants (undergraduates; n = 198). Study 2 used a cross-sectional design with a sample of U.S. military Veterans (n = 215). Study 3 used a pre-post treatment design with a sample of U.S. military Veterans (n = 42). Study 4 used a 2-time-point longitudinal design with a sample of undergraduates (n = 77). RESULTS: The SBAF demonstrated strong levels of internal consistency and test-retest reliability in all four studies. The SBAF also demonstrated predictive and discriminant validity. In Study 3, the SBAF predicted anxious, but not depressive, treatment outcomes in a sample of Veterans. In Study 4, the SBAF predicted prospective changes in anxiety over a 2-week interval in a sample of undergraduates even after controlling for a competing measure of safety behaviors. CONCLUSION: Results of these four studies indicate that the SBAF is a reliable and valid measure of safety behaviors that can be used in both clinical and nonclinical settings.

Proximity, relationship closeness, and cognitive vulnerability: predicting enduring depressive reactions to a college campus tragedy.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that enduring depressive reactions to tragedy are due to a unique combination of three factors-close physical proximity to the event, close relationship with the victim(s), and high levels of cognitive vulnerability. METHOD: Participants were 70 undergraduates (66% female; mean age = 18) from a midsized private university. Cognitive vulnerability and depressive symptoms were assessed 2 years before a college campus tragedy; physical proximity, relationship with the victim, and depressive symptoms were assessed 2 months after the tragedy. RESULTS: Individuals with a combination of high levels of cognitive vulnerability and close physical proximity to the event were at greater risk for enduring depression, but only if they did not have a very close relationship with the victim. CONCLUSION: This article puts forth a testable theory that helps to explain why some individuals are at risk for enduring depressive reactions to tragedy. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Teasing apart the effects of cognition, stress, and depression on health.

OBJECTIVE: To test whether cognitive vulnerability could explain the link between depression and poor health. METHODS: A 4-week longitudinal design was used to examine health problems (eg, diabetes), health behaviors (eg, smoking), depressive symptoms, cognitive vulnerability, and life stress in a sample of 154 undergraduates. RESULTS: Contrary to hypotheses, depressive symptoms, but not cognitive vulnerability, were associated with health problems. However, as predicted, cognitive vulnerability was a better predictor of prospective changes in specific health behaviors than were depressive symptoms. Unexpectedly, life stress was the best predictor of prospective changes in specific health behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: These results are among the first to show that the factors associated with health problems are different than those associated with specific health behaviors.

Development and validation of the Delinquency Reduction Outcome Profile (DROP) in a sample of incarcerated juveniles: a multiconstruct/multisituational scoring approach.

The Delinquency Reduction Outcome Profile (DROP) is a novel situational-judgment test (SJT) designed to measure social decision making in delinquent youth. The DROP includes both a typical SJT scoring method, which captures the deviation of an individual response from an "ideal" expert-based response pattern, as well as a novel "Multiconstruct-Multisituational" (MCMS) factor-scoring method, enabling the assessment "in context" of latent dimensions reflecting stable decision-making tendencies. The authors present the development and validation of the DROP across 2 studies establishing its reliability and internal and concurrent validity using a sample of 1,922 young detainees and a sample of juveniles from the community. The authors also discuss the potential usefulness of the DROP as a prognostic tool to predict recidivism for delinquent youth and to monitor changes in intervention programs designed to improve social decision-making skills. Benefits of the MCMS scoring approach for SJT literature and psychological measurement are also discussed.

Using a cognitive endophenotype to identify risk genes for depression.

We theorized the cognitive vulnerability factor featured in hopelessness theory [2] to be a novel endophenotype for depression. We investigated two possible genetic contributors to individual differences in cognitive vulnerability (and, in turn, depression): the BDNF gene and the COMT gene. Results showed that individuals (n=95) with the BDNF Val(66) genotype had significantly greater levels of cognitive vulnerability than individuals with a BDNF Met(66) genotype. In addition, among individuals with high levels of cognitive vulnerability, those with the Val(66) genotype were significantly more likely than participants with a Met(66) genotype to experience increases in depressive symptoms when faced with increased stress. The COMT gene was not associated with cognitive vulnerability or risk for depression. Results support the use of the cognitive vulnerability factor featured in hopelessness theory as an endophenotype associated with depression as well as the role of the BDNF gene in a cognitive subtype of depression.

Motion as motivation: using repetitive flexion movements to stimulate the approach system.

Research suggests that having a healthy approach system is critical for adaptive emotional functioning. The goal of the current study (n=186 undergraduates) was to determine the efficacy of an easy-to-disseminate and cost-efficient strategy for stimulating this system. The experiment tested the effects of repeated flexion movements (rFM) on approach system activation as measured by both self-report (BAS scales) and behavior. The results showed that rFM increased approach system motivation in men but not women. Men who completed the rFM task reported significantly greater levels of fun-seeking motivation than men in the control task. Moreover, the rFM task led to changes in actual behavior. Men who completed the rFM task exhibited significantly greater persistence on a difficult laboratory task than men in the control task. In contrast, women who completed the rFM task reported significantly lower levels of fun seeking and tended to exhibit less persistence on a difficult laboratory task than women in the control task. These results provide support for embodied theories of emotion as well as additional evidence for a gender difference in approach-avoidance tendencies.

Resilience to depressive symptoms: The buffering effects of enhancing cognitive style and positive life events.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: There are two lines of research examining the role of cognition in depression. One line of research focuses on risk for depression, and shows that a negative cognitive style interacts with stressful life events to create depression. The second line of research focuses on recovery, and shows that an enhancing cognitive style interacts with positive life events to reduce depression. The goal of this study was to integrate these two areas and provide a more comprehensive test of the cognitive model of depression. METHODS: A 4-week prospective longitudinal design was used to test the interaction between cognitive style (both negative and enhancing) and life events (both negative and positive) in a sample of undergraduates (n = 128). RESULTS: Cognitively vulnerable individuals were buffered from the depressive effects of stress if they also possessed an enhancing cognitive style or experienced high numbers of positive life events. Individuals with low levels of negative cognitive style and life stress, but high levels of enhancing cognitive style or positive life events were the most resilient to depressive symptoms. LIMITATIONS: Future research is needed to determine if the results of this study generalize to a more diverse sample as well as to clinically significant forms of depression. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide some of the first evidence for the protective role of enhancing cognitive style and positive live events among vulnerable individuals. These findings underscore the importance of examining a broader environmental context when investigating risk and resiliency to depression.

Self-report: psychology's four-letter word.

Self-report continues to be one of the most widely used measurement strategies in psychology despite longstanding concerns about its validity and scientific rigor. In this article, the merits of self-report are examined from a philosophy of science perspective. A framework is also provided for evaluating self-report measures. Specifically, four issues are presented that can be used as a decision aid when making choices about measurement.