Propofol directly binds and inhibits skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor 1 (RyR1).

As the primary Ca 2+ release channel in skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), mutations in the type 1 ryanodine receptor (RyR1) or its binding partners underlie a constellation of muscle disorders, including malignant hyperthermia (MH). In patients with MH mutations, exposure to triggering drugs such as the halogenated volatile anesthetics biases RyR1 to an open state, resulting in uncontrolled Ca 2+ release, sarcomere tension and heat production. Restoration of Ca 2+ into the SR also consumes ATP, generating a further untenable metabolic load. When anesthetizing patients with known MH mutations, the non-triggering intravenous general anesthetic propofol is commonly substituted for triggering anesthetics. Evidence of direct binding of anesthetic agents to RyR1 or its binding partners is scant, and the atomic-level interactions of propofol with RyR1 are entirely unknown. Here, we show that propofol decreases RyR1 opening in heavy SR vesicles and planar lipid bilayers, and that it inhibits activator-induced Ca 2+ release from SR in human skeletal muscle. In addition to confirming direct binding, photoaffinity labeling using m- azipropofol (AziP m ) revealed several putative propofol binding sites on RyR1. Prediction of binding affinity by molecular dynamics simulation suggests that propofol binds at least one of these sites at clinical concentrations. These findings invite the hypothesis that in addition to propofol not triggering MH, it may also be protective against MH by inhibiting induced Ca 2+ flux through RyR1.

Allosteric modulation of ryanodine receptor RyR1 by nucleotide derivatives.

The coordinated release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is critical for excitation-contraction coupling. This release is facilitated by ryanodine receptors (RyRs) that are embedded in the SR membrane. In skeletal muscle, activity of RyR1 is regulated by metabolites such as ATP, which upon binding increase channel open probability (Po). To obtain structural insights into the mechanism of RyR1 priming by ATP, we determined several cryo-EM structures of RyR1 bound individually to ATP-γ-S, ADP, AMP, adenosine, adenine, and cAMP. We demonstrate that adenine and adenosine bind RyR1, but AMP is the smallest ATP derivative capable of inducing long-range (>170 Å) structural rearrangements associated with channel activation, establishing a structural basis for key binding site interactions that are the threshold for triggering quaternary structural changes. Our finding that cAMP also induces these structural changes and results in increased channel opening suggests its potential role as an endogenous modulator of RyR1 conductance.

Cryo-EM analysis of scorpion toxin binding to Ryanodine Receptors reveals subconductance that is abolished by PKA phosphorylation.

Calcins are peptides from scorpion venom with the unique ability to cross cell membranes, gaining access to intracellular targets. Ryanodine Receptors (RyR) are intracellular ion channels that control release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcins target RyRs and induce long-lived subconductance states, whereby single-channel currents are decreased. We used cryo-electron microscopy to reveal the binding and structural effects of imperacalcin, showing that it opens the channel pore and causes large asymmetry throughout the cytosolic assembly of the tetrameric RyR. This also creates multiple extended ion conduction pathways beyond the transmembrane region, resulting in subconductance. Phosphorylation of imperacalcin by protein kinase A prevents its binding to RyR through direct steric hindrance, showing how posttranslational modifications made by the host organism can determine the fate of a natural toxin. The structure provides a direct template for developing calcin analogs that result in full channel block, with potential to treat RyR-related disorders.

The effect of Mg2+ on Ca2+ binding to cardiac troponin C in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy associated TNNC1 variants.

Cardiac troponin C (cTnC) is the critical Ca2+ -sensing component of the troponin complex. Binding of Ca2+ to cTnC triggers a cascade of conformational changes within the myofilament that culminate in force production. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)-associated TNNC1 variants generally induce a greater degree and duration of Ca2+ binding, which may underly the hypertrophic phenotype. Regulation of contraction has long been thought to occur exclusively through Ca2+ binding to site II of cTnC. However, work by several groups including ours suggest that Mg2+ , which is several orders of magnitude more abundant in the cell than Ca2+ , may compete for binding to the same cTnC regulatory site. We previously used isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) to demonstrate that physiological concentrations of Mg2+ may decrease site II Ca2+ -binding in both N-terminal and full-length cTnC. Here, we explore the binding of Ca2+ and Mg2+ to cTnC harbouring a series of TNNC1 variants thought to be causal in HCM. ITC and thermodynamic integration (TI) simulations show that A8V, L29Q and A31S elevate the affinity for both Ca2+ and Mg2+ . Further, L48Q, Q50R and C84Y that are adjacent to the EF hand binding motif of site II have a more significant effect on affinity and the thermodynamics of the binding interaction. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first to explore the role of Mg2+ in modifying the Ca2+ affinity of cTnC mutations linked to HCM. Our results indicate a physiologically significant role for cellular Mg2+ both at baseline and when elevated on modifying the Ca2+ binding properties of cTnC and the subsequent conformational changes which precede cardiac contraction.

Structures of PKA-phospholamban complexes reveal a mechanism of familial dilated cardiomyopathy.

Several mutations identified in phospholamban (PLN) have been linked to familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and heart failure, yet the underlying molecular mechanism remains controversial. PLN interacts with sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) and regulates calcium uptake, which is modulated by the protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent phosphorylation of PLN during the fight-or-flight response. Here, we present the crystal structures of the catalytic domain of mouse PKA in complex with wild-type and DCM-mutant PLNs. Our structures, combined with the results from other biophysical and biochemical assays, reveal a common disease mechanism: the mutations in PLN reduce its phosphorylation level by changing its conformation and weakening its interactions with PKA. In addition, we demonstrate that another more ubiquitous SERCA-regulatory peptide, called another-regulin (ALN), shares a similar mechanism mediated by PKA in regulating SERCA activity.

Pathological conformations of disease mutant Ryanodine Receptors revealed by cryo-EM.

Ryanodine Receptors (RyRs) are massive channels that release Ca2+ from the endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum. Hundreds of mutations are linked to malignant hyperthermia (MH), myopathies, and arrhythmias. Here, we explore the first MH mutation identified in humans by providing cryo-EM snapshots of the pig homolog, R615C, showing that it affects an interface between three solenoid regions. We also show the impact of apo-calmodulin (apoCaM) and how it can induce opening by bending of the bridging solenoid, mediated by its N-terminal lobe. For R615C RyR1, apoCaM binding abolishes a pathological 'intermediate' conformation, distributing the population to a mixture of open and closed channels, both different from the structure without apoCaM. Comparisons show that the mutation primarily affects the closed state, inducing partial movements linked to channel activation. This shows that disease mutations can cause distinct pathological conformations of the RyR and facilitate channel opening by disrupting interactions between different solenoid regions.

Structural basis for diamide modulation of ryanodine receptor.

The diamide insecticide class is one of the top-selling insecticides globally. They are used to control a wide range of pests by targeting their ryanodine receptors (RyRs). Here, we report the highest-resolution cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of RyR1 in the open state, in complex with the anthranilic diamide chlorantraniliprole (CHL). The 3.2-Å local resolution map facilitates unambiguous assignment of the CHL binding site. The molecule induces a conformational change by affecting the S4-S5 linker, triggering channel opening. The binding site is further corroborated by mutagenesis data, which reveal how diamide insecticides are selective to the Lepidoptera group of insects over honeybee or mammalian RyRs. Our data reveal that several pests have developed resistance via two mechanisms, steric hindrance and loss of contact. Our results provide a foundation for the development of highly selective pesticides aimed at overcoming resistance and therapeutic molecules to treat human myopathies.

A rare CACNA1H variant associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis causes complete loss of Cav3.2 T-type channel activity.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of cortical, brain stem and spinal motor neurons that leads to muscle weakness and death. A previous study implicated CACNA1H encoding for Cav3.2 calcium channels as a susceptibility gene in ALS. In the present study, two heterozygous CACNA1H variants were identified by whole genome sequencing in a small cohort of ALS patients. These variants were functionally characterized using patch clamp electrophysiology, biochemistry assays, and molecular modeling. A previously unreported c.454GTAC > G variant produced an inframe deletion of a highly conserved isoleucine residue in Cav3.2 (p.ΔI153) and caused a complete loss-of-function of the channel, with an additional dominant-negative effect on the wild-type channel when expressed in trans. In contrast, the c.3629C > T variant caused a missense substitution of a proline with a leucine (p.P1210L) and produced a comparatively mild alteration of Cav3.2 channel activity. The newly identified ΔI153 variant is the first to be reported to cause a complete loss of Cav3.2 channel function. These findings add to the notion that loss-of-function of Cav3.2 channels associated with rare CACNA1H variants may be risk factors in the complex etiology of ALS.

The Cardiac Ryanodine Receptor Phosphorylation Hotspot Embraces PKA in a Phosphorylation-Dependent Manner.

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are intracellular Ca2+ release channels controlling essential cellular functions. RyRs are targeted by cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), a controversial regulation implicated in disorders ranging from heart failure to Alzheimer's. Using crystal structures, we show that the phosphorylation hotspot domain of RyR2 embraces the PKA catalytic subunit, with an extensive interface not seen in PKA complexes with peptides. We trapped an intermediary open-form PKA bound to the RyR2 domain and an ATP analog, showing that PKA can engage substrates in an open form. Phosphomimetics or prior phosphorylation at nearby sites in RyR2 either enhance or reduce the activity of PKA. Finally, we show that a phosphomimetic at S2813, a well-known target site for calmodulin-dependent kinase II, induces the formation of an alpha helix in the phosphorylation domain, resulting in increased interactions and PKA activity. This shows that the different phosphorylation sites in RyR2 are not independent.

Subtle Changes in the Combining Site of the Chlamydiaceae-Specific mAb S25-23 Increase the Antibody-Carbohydrate Binding Affinity by an Order of Magnitude.

Murine antibodies S25-23, S25-26, and S25-5 derive from a common germ-line origin, and all bind the Chlamydiaceae family-specific epitope αKdo(2→8)αKdo(2→4)αKdo (where Kdo is 3-deoxy-α-d- manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid) with high affinity and specificity. These antibodies recognize the entire trisaccharide antigen in a linkage-dependent manner via a groove composed largely of germ-line residues. Despite sharing identical heavy and light chain genes, S25-23 binds the family-specific epitope with nanomolar affinity, which is an order of magnitude higher than that of S25-26, while S25-5 displays an affinity between those of S25-23 and S25-26. We determined the high-resolution crystal structures of S25-23 and S25-5 antigen binding fragments in complex with a pentasaccharide derived from the LPS of Chlamydia and measured the affinity of S25-5 for chlamydial LPS antigens using isothermal titration microcalorimetry. The 1.75 Å resolution structure of S25-23 shows how subtle conservative mutations Arg(L)-27E to lysine and Ser(H)-56 to threonine lead to an order of magnitude increase in affinity. Importantly, comparison between previous S25-26 structures and the 1.99 and 2.05 Å resolution liganded and unliganded structures of S25-5, respectively, shows how a Ser(L)-27E mutation results in an intermediate affinity due to the reduced enthalpic penalty associated with complex formation that would otherwise be required for arginine in this position. This strategy allows for subtle adjustments in the combining site via affinity maturation that have dramatic consequences for the affinity of an antibody for its antigen.

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia patients with multiple genetic variants in the PACES CPVT Registry.

BACKGROUND: Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) is often a life-threatening arrhythmia disorder with variable penetrance and expressivity. Little is known about the incidence or outcomes of CPVT patients with ≥2 variants. METHODS: The phenotypes, genotypes and outcomes of patients in the Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society CPVT Registry with ≥2 variants in genes linked to CPVT were ascertained. The American College of Medical Genetics & Genomics (ACMG) criteria and structural mapping were used to predict the pathogenicity of variants (3D model of pig RyR2 in open-state). RESULTS: Among 237 CPVT subjects, 193 (81%) had genetic testing. Fifteen patients (8%) with a median age of 9 years (IQR 5-12) had ≥2 variants. Sudden cardiac arrest occurred in 11 children (73%), although none died during a median follow-up of 4.3 years (IQR 2.5-6.1). Thirteen patients (80%) had at least two RYR2 variants, while the remaining two patients had RYR2 variants plus variants in other CPVT-linked genes. Among all variants identified, re-classification of the commercial laboratory interpretation using ACMG criteria led to the upgrade from variant of unknown significance (VUS) to pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) for 5 variants, and downgrade from P/LP to VUS for 6 variants. For RYR2 variants, 3D mapping using the RyR2 model suggested that 2 VUS by ACMG criteria were P/LP, while 2 variants were downgraded to likely benign. CONCLUSIONS: This severely affected cohort demonstrates that a minority of CPVT cases are related to ≥2 variants, which may have implications on family-based genetic counselling. While multi-variant CPVT patients were at high-risk for sudden cardiac arrest, there are insufficient data to conclude that this genetic phenomenon has prognostic implications at present. Further research is needed to determine the significance and generalizability of this observation. This study also shows that a rigorous approach to variant re-classification using the ACMG criteria and 3D mapping is important in reaching an accurate diagnosis, especially in the multi-variant population.

Structural basis of cell wall anchoring by SLH domains in Paenibacillus alvei.

Self-assembling protein surface (S-) layers are common cell envelope structures of prokaryotes and have critical roles from structural maintenance to virulence. S-layers of Gram-positive bacteria are often attached through the interaction of S-layer homology (SLH) domain trimers with peptidoglycan-linked secondary cell wall polymers (SCWPs). Here we present an in-depth characterization of this interaction, with co-crystal structures of the three consecutive SLH domains from the Paenibacillus alvei S-layer protein SpaA with defined SCWP ligands. The most highly conserved SLH domain residue SLH-Gly29 is shown to enable a peptide backbone flip essential for SCWP binding in both biophysical and cellular experiments. Furthermore, we find that a significant domain movement mediates binding by two different sites in the SLH domain trimer, which may allow anchoring readjustment to relieve S-layer strain caused by cell growth and division.

Conserved residues Arg188 and Asp302 are critical for active site organization and catalysis in human ABO(H) blood group A and B glycosyltransferases.

Homologous glycosyltransferases GTA and GTB perform the final step in human ABO(H) blood group A and B antigen synthesis by transferring the sugar moiety from donor UDP-GalNAc/UDP-Gal to the terminal H antigen disaccharide acceptor. Like other GT-A fold family 6 glycosyltransferases, GTA and GTB undergo major conformational changes in two mobile regions, the C-terminal tail and internal loop, to achieve the closed, catalytic state. These changes are known to establish a salt bridge network among conserved active site residues Arg188, Asp211 and Asp302, which move to accommodate a series of discrete donor conformations while promoting loop ordering and formation of the closed enzyme state. However, the individual significance of these residues in linking these processes remains unclear. Here, we report the kinetics and high-resolution structures of GTA/GTB mutants of residues 188 and 302. The structural data support a conserved salt bridge network critical to mobile polypeptide loop organization and stabilization of the catalytically competent donor conformation. Consistent with the X-ray crystal structures, the kinetic data suggest that disruption of this salt bridge network has a destabilizing effect on the transition state, emphasizing the importance of Arg188 and Asp302 in the glycosyltransfer reaction mechanism. The salt bridge network observed in GTA/GTB structures during substrate binding appears to be conserved not only among other Carbohydrate Active EnZyme family 6 glycosyltransferases but also within both retaining and inverting GT-A fold glycosyltransferases. Our findings augment recently published crystal structures, which have identified a correlation between donor substrate conformational changes and mobile loop ordering.

Polyspecificity of Anti-lipid A Antibodies and Its Relevance to the Development of Autoimmunity.

The process of natural selection favours germ-line gene segments that encode CDRs that have the ability to recognize a range of structurally related antigens. This presents an immunological advantage to the host, as it can confer protection against a common pathogen and still cope with new or changing antigens. Cross-reactive and polyspecific antibodies also play a central role in autoimmune responses, and a link has been shown to exist between auto-reactive B cells and certain bacterial infections. Bacterial DNA, lipids, and carbohydrates have been implicated in the progression of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. As well, reports of anti-lipid A antibody polyspecificity towards single-stranded DNA together with the observed sequence homology amongst isolated auto- and anti-lipid A antibodies has prompted further study of this phenomenon. Though the lipid A epitope appears cryptic during Gram-negative bacterial infection, there have been several reported instances of lipid A-specific antibodies isolated from human sera, some of which have exhibited polyspecificity for single stranded DNA. In such cases, the breakdown of negative selection through polyspecificity can have the unfortunate consequence of autoimmune disease. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding such antibodies and emphasizes the features of S1-15, A6, and S55-5, anti-lipid A antibodies whose structures were recently determined by X-ray crystallography.

Molecular Basis for Recognition of the Cancer Glycobiomarker, LacdiNAc (GalNAc[ß1→4]GlcNAc), by Wisteria floribunda Agglutinin.

Aberrant glycosylation and the overexpression of specific carbohydrate epitopes is a hallmark of many cancers, and tumor-associated oligosaccharides are actively investigated as targets for immunotherapy and diagnostics. Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA) is a legume lectin that recognizes terminal N-acetylgalactosaminides with high affinity. WFA preferentially binds the disaccharide LacdiNAc (ß-d-GalNAc-[1→4]-d-GlcNAc), which is associated with tumor malignancy in leukemia, prostate, pancreatic, ovarian, and liver cancers and has shown promise in cancer glycobiomarker detection. The mechanism of specificity for WFA recognition of LacdiNAc is not fully understood. To address this problem, we have determined affinities and structure of WFA in complex with GalNAc and LacdiNAc. Affinities toward Gal, GalNAc, and LacdiNAc were measured via surface plasmon resonance, yielding KD values of 4.67 × 10-4 m, 9.24 × 10-5 m, and 5.45 × 10-6 m, respectively. Structures of WFA in complex with LacdiNAc and GalNAc have been determined to 1.80-2.32 Å resolution. These high resolution structures revealed a hydrophobic groove complementary to the GalNAc and, to a minor extent, to the back-face of the GlcNAc sugar ring. Remarkably, the contribution of this small hydrophobic surface significantly increases the observed affinity for LacdiNAc over GalNAc. Tandem MS sequencing confirmed the presence of two isolectin forms in commercially available WFA differing only in the identities of two amino acids. Finally, the WFA carbohydrate binding site is similar to a homologous lectin isolated from Vatairea macrocarpa in complex with GalNAc, which, unlike WFA, binds not only αGalNAc but also terminal Ser/Thr O-linked αGalNAc (Tn antigen).

The Combining Sites of Anti-lipid A Antibodies Reveal a Widely Utilized Motif Specific for Negatively Charged Groups.

Lipopolysaccharide dispersed in the blood by Gram-negative bacteria can be a potent inducer of septic shock. One research focus has been based on antibody sequestration of lipid A (the endotoxic principle of LPS); however, none have been successfully developed into a clinical treatment. Comparison of a panel of anti-lipid A antibodies reveals highly specific antibodies produced through distinct germ line precursors. The structures of antigen-binding fragments for two homologous mAbs specific for lipid A, S55-3 and S55-5, have been determined both in complex with lipid A disaccharide backbone and unliganded. These high resolution structures reveal a conserved positively charged pocket formed within the complementarity determining region H2 loops that binds the terminal phosphates of lipid A. Significantly, this motif occurs in unrelated antibodies where it mediates binding to negatively charged moieties through a range of epitopes, including phosphorylated peptides used in diagnostics and therapeutics. S55-3 and S55-5 have combining sites distinct from anti-lipid A antibodies previously described (as a result of their separate germ line origin), which are nevertheless complementary both in shape and charge to the antigen. S55-3 and S55-5 display similar avidity toward lipid A despite possessing a number of different amino acid residues in their combining sites. Binding of lipid A occurs independent of the acyl chains, although the GlcN-O6 attachment point for the core oligosaccharide is buried in the combining site, which explains their inability to recognize LPS. Despite their lack of therapeutic potential, the observed motif may have significant immunological implications as a tool for engineering recombinant antibodies.

High Resolution Structures of the Human ABO(H) Blood Group Enzymes in Complex with Donor Analogs Reveal That the Enzymes Utilize Multiple Donor Conformations to Bind Substrates in a Stepwise Manner.

Homologous glycosyltransferases α-(1→3)-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (GTA) and α-(1→3)-galactosyltransferase (GTB) catalyze the final step in ABO(H) blood group A and B antigen synthesis through sugar transfer from activated donor to the H antigen acceptor. These enzymes have a GT-A fold type with characteristic mobile polypeptide loops that cover the active site upon substrate binding and, despite intense investigation, many aspects of substrate specificity and catalysis remain unclear. The structures of GTA, GTB, and their chimeras have been determined to between 1.55 and 1.39 Å resolution in complex with natural donors UDP-Gal, UDP-Glc and, in an attempt to overcome one of the common problems associated with three-dimensional studies, the non-hydrolyzable donor analog UDP-phosphono-galactose (UDP-C-Gal). Whereas the uracil moieties of the donors are observed to maintain a constant location, the sugar moieties lie in four distinct conformations, varying from extended to the "tucked under" conformation associated with catalysis, each stabilized by different hydrogen bonding partners with the enzyme. Further, several structures show clear evidence that the donor sugar is disordered over two of the observed conformations and so provide evidence for stepwise insertion into the active site. Although the natural donors can both assume the tucked under conformation in complex with enzyme, UDP-C-Gal cannot. Whereas UDP-C-Gal was designed to be "isosteric" with natural donor, the small differences in structure imposed by changing the epimeric oxygen atom to carbon appear to render the enzyme incapable of binding the analog in the active conformation and so preclude its use as a substrate mimic in GTA and GTB.

Structural Basis for Antibody Recognition of Lipid A: INSIGHTS TO POLYSPECIFICITY TOWARD SINGLE-STRANDED DNA.

Septic shock is a leading cause of death, and it results from an inflammatory cascade triggered by the presence of microbial products in the blood. Certain LPS from Gram-negative bacteria are very potent inducers and are responsible for a high percentage of septic shock cases. Despite decades of research, mAbs specific for lipid A (the endotoxic principle of LPS) have not been successfully developed into a clinical treatment for sepsis. To understand the molecular basis for the observed inability to translate in vitro specificity for lipid A into clinical potential, the structures of antigen-binding fragments of mAbs S1-15 and A6 have been determined both in complex with lipid A carbohydrate backbone and in the unliganded form. The two antibodies have separate germ line origins that generate two markedly different combining-site pockets that are complementary both in shape and charge to the antigen. mAb A6 binds lipid A through both variable light and heavy chain residues, whereas S1-15 utilizes exclusively the variable heavy chain. Both antibodies bind lipid A such that the GlcN-O6 attachment point for the core oligosaccharide is buried in the combining site, which explains the lack of LPS recognition. Longstanding reports of polyspecificity of anti-lipid A antibodies toward single-stranded DNA combined with observed homology of S1-15 and A6 and the reports of several single-stranded DNA-specific mAbs prompted the determination of the structure of S1-15 in complex with single-stranded DNA fragments, which may provide clues about the genesis of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, thyroiditis, and rheumatic autoimmune diseases.

Antibody recognition of carbohydrate epitopes†.

Carbohydrate antigens are valuable as components of vaccines for bacterial infectious agents and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and for generating immunotherapeutics against cancer. The crystal structures of anti-carbohydrate antibodies in complex with antigen reveal the key features of antigen recognition and provide information that can guide the design of vaccines, particularly synthetic ones. This review summarizes structural features of anti-carbohydrate antibodies to over 20 antigens, based on six categories of glyco-antigen: (i) the glycan shield of HIV glycoproteins; (ii) tumor epitopes; (iii) glycolipids and blood group A antigen; (iv) internal epitopes of bacterial lipopolysaccharides; (v) terminal epitopes on polysaccharides and oligosaccharides, including a group of antibodies to Kdo-containing Chlamydia epitopes; and (vi) linear homopolysaccharides.