Expanding the Gap: An Updated Look Into Sex Differences in Running Performance.

Males consistently outperform females in athletic endeavors, including running events of standard Olympic distances (100 m to Marathon). The magnitude of this percentage sex difference, i.e., the sex gap, has evolved over time. Two clear trends in sex gap evolution are evident; a narrowing of the gap during the 20th century, followed by a period of stability thereafter. However, an updated perspective on the average sex gap from top 20 athlete performances over the past two decades reveals nuanced trends over time, indicating the sex gap is not fixed. Additionally, the sex gap varies with performance level; the difference in absolute running performance between males and females is lowest for world record/world lead performances and increases in lower-ranked elite athletes. This observation of an increased sex gap with world rank is evident in events 400 m and longer and indicates a lower depth in female competitive standards. Explanations for the sex difference in absolute performance and competition depth include physical (physiological, anatomical, neuromuscular, biomechanical), sociocultural, psychological, and sport-specific factors. It is apparent that females are the disadvantaged sex in sport; therefore, measures should be taken to reduce this discrepancy and enable both sexes to reach their biological performance potential. There is scope to narrow the sex performance gap by addressing inequalities between the sexes in opportunities, provisions, incentives, attitudes/perceptions, research, and media representation.

Does heart rate response confirm the attainment of maximal oxygen uptake in adults 45 years and older?

PURPOSE: To test the efficacy of a plateau in heart rate (HRplat) as an effective indicator for confirming [Formula: see text]max attainment in a middle-aged to older sample. METHODS: Nine men and eleven women (age 60 ± 8.5 years, [Formula: see text]max 35.9 ± 9.4 ml/kg/min, N = 20) completed a single [Formula: see text]max test on both the treadmill and cycle ergometer.[Formula: see text]max was confirmed using a plateau in [Formula: see text] ([Formula: see text]plat) of ≤ 150 ml/min, a verification bout, and HRplat (≤ 4 bpm). RESULTS: [Formula: see text]plat occurred in 100% and 95% of participants on the treadmill and cycle ergometer, respectively. Verification criteria ([Formula: see text]max during verification ≤ 2% of [Formula: see text]max during incremental test) were met by 80% of participants on both modalities. HRplat was achieved by 90% and 70% of participants on the treadmill and cycle ergometer, respectively. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a verification bout is reliable for confirming [Formula: see text]max in older adults on both modalities. In our sample of middle-aged and older adults, [Formula: see text]plat was the most robust method to assess [Formula: see text]max when indirect calorimetry is available. Although more research is warranted, when indirect calorimetry is not available, a HRplat of ≤ 4 bpm may be a useful alternative to get an accurate representation of maximal effort in middle-aged and older adults.