Positive GPNMB Immunostaining Differentiates Renal Cell Carcinoma With Fibromyomatous Stroma Associated With TSC1/2/MTOR Alterations From Others.

Renal cell carcinoma with fibromyomatous stroma (RCCFMS) include ELOC/TCEB1 -mutated renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and those with TSC1/2 / MTOR alterations. Besides morphologic similarity, most of these tumors is known to be diffusely positive for carbonic anhydrase IX and cytokeratin 7 by immunohistochemistry. We previously showed strong and diffuse expression of GPNMB (glycoprotein nonmetastatic B) in translocation RCC and eosinophilic renal neoplasms with known TSC1/2/MTOR alterations. We retrospectively identified molecularly confirmed cases of TCEB1/ELOC -mutated RCC (7 tumors from 7 patients), and RCCFMS with alterations in TSC1/2/MTOR (6 tumors from 5 patients, 1 patient with tuberous sclerosis syndrome). In addition, we included 7 clear cell papillary renal cell tumors (CCPRCTs) and 8 clear cell RCC, as they can also present morphologic overlap with RCCFMS. Morphologically, RCCs with TSC1/2/MTOR alterations and those with TCEB1/ELOC mutations were indistinguishable and characterized by papillary, nested, or tubular architecture, with tumor cells with clear cytoplasm and low nuclear grade. By immunohistochemistry, cytokeratin 7 was positive in 5/7 (71%) of TCEB1/ELOC -mutated RCCs, 6/6 (100%) of RCCs with TSC1/2/mTOR alterations, and 7/7 (100%) of CCPRCTs ( P =not significant). Carbonic anhydrase IX was positive in 7/7 TCEB1/ELOC -mutated RCCs, 6/6 (100%) of RCCs with TSC1/2/MTOR alterations, and 7/7 (100%) of CCPRCTs ( P =NS). GPNMB was strongly and diffusely positive in all tumors with TSC1/2/MTOR alterations (6/6), while negative in all TCEB1/ELOC -mutated RCCs (0/6), or CCPRCTs (0/7) ( P =0.002). Two of 8 clear cell RCC showed focal weak staining, while 6/8 were negative. In conclusion, the results support the use of GPNMB to distinguish RCCFMS with TSC1/2/MTOR alterations from others with similar morphology.

CRISPR-Cas9 for selective targeting of somatic mutations in pancreatic cancers.

Somatic mutations are desirable targets for selective elimination of cancer, yet most are found within the noncoding regions. We propose a novel, cancer-specific killing approach using CRISPR-Cas9 which exploits the requirement of a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) for Cas9 activity. Through whole genome sequencing (WGS) of paired tumor minus normal (T-N) samples from three pancreatic cancer patients (Panc480, Panc504, and Panc1002), we identified an average of 417 somatic PAMs per tumor produced from single base substitutions. We analyzed 591 paired T-N samples from The International Cancer Genome Consortium and discovered medians of ~455 somatic PAMs per tumor in pancreatic, ~2800 in lung, and ~3200 in esophageal cancer cohorts. Finally, we demonstrated >80% selective cell death of two targeted pancreatic cancer cell lines in co-cultures using 4-9 sgRNAs, targeting noncoding regions, designed from the somatic PAM discovery approach. We also showed no off-target activity from these tumor-specific sgRNAs through WGS.

Mechanism of delayed cell death following simultaneous CRISPR-Cas9 targeting in pancreatic cancers.

When we transduced pancreatic cancers with sgRNAs that targeted 2-16 target sites in the human genome, we found that increasing the number of CRISPR-Cas9 target sites produced greater cytotoxicity, with >99% growth inhibition observed by targeting only 12 sites. However, cell death was delayed by 2-3 weeks after sgRNA transduction, in contrast to the repair of double strand DNA breaks (DSBs) that happened within 3 days after transduction. To explain this discrepancy, we used both cytogenetics and whole genome sequencing to interrogate the genome. We first detected chromatid and chromosome breaks, followed by radial formations, dicentric, ring chromosomes, and other chromosomal aberrations that peaked at 14 days after transduction. Structural variants (SVs) were detected at sites that were directly targeted by CRISPR-Cas9, including SVs generated from two sites that were targeted, but the vast majority of SVs (89.4%) were detected elsewhere in the genome that arose later than those directly targeted. Cells also underwent polyploidization that peaked at day 10 as detected by XY FISH assay, and ultimately died via apoptosis. Overall, we found that the simultaneous DSBs induced by CRISPR-Cas9 in pancreatic cancers caused chromosomal instability and polyploidization that ultimately led to delayed cell death.

Prolonged, physiologically relevant nicotine concentrations in the airways of smokers.

Nicotine from cigarette smoke is a biologically active molecule that has pleiotropic effects in the airway, which could play a role in smoking-induced lung disease. However, whether nicotine and its metabolites reach sustained, physiologically relevant concentrations on airway surfaces of smokers is not well defined. To address these issues, concentrations of nicotine, cotinine, and hydroxycotinine were measured by mass spectrometry (MS) in supernatants of induced sputum obtained from participants in the subpopulations and intermediate outcome measures in COPD study (SPIROMICS), an ongoing observational study that included never smokers, former smokers, and current smokers with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A total of 980 sputum supernatants were analyzed from 77 healthy never smokers, 494 former smokers (233 with COPD), and 396 active smokers (151 with COPD). Sputum nicotine, cotinine, and hydroxycotinine concentrations corresponded to self-reported smoking status and were strongly correlated to urine measures. A cutoff of ∼8-10 ng/mL of sputum cotinine distinguished never smokers from active smokers. Accounting for sample dilution during processing, active smokers had airway nicotine concentrations in the 70-850 ng/mL (∼0.5-5 µM) range, and concentrations remained elevated even in current smokers who had not smoked within 24 h. This study demonstrates that airway nicotine and its metabolites are readily measured in sputum supernatants and can serve as biological markers of smoke exposure. In current smokers, nicotine is present at physiologically relevant concentrations for prolonged periods, supporting a contribution to cigarette-induced airway disease.

CloneRetriever: An Automated Algorithm to Identify Clonal B and T Cell Gene Rearrangements by Next-Generation Sequencing for the Diagnosis of Lymphoid Malignancies.

BACKGROUND: Clonal immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor rearrangements serve as tumor-specific markers that have become mainstays of the diagnosis and monitoring of lymphoid malignancy. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques targeting these loci have been successfully applied to lymphoblastic leukemia and multiple myeloma for minimal residual disease detection. However, adoption of NGS for primary diagnosis remains limited. METHODS: We addressed the bioinformatics challenges associated with immune cell sequencing and clone detection by designing a novel web tool, CloneRetriever (CR), which uses machine-learning principles to generate clone classification schemes that are customizable, and can be applied to large datasets. CR has 2 applications-a "validation" mode to derive a clonality classifier, and a "live" mode to screen for clones by applying a validated and/or customized classifier. In this study, CR-generated multiple classifiers using 2 datasets comprising 106 annotated patient samples. A custom classifier was then applied to 36 unannotated samples. RESULTS: The optimal classifier for clonality required clonal dominance ≥4.5× above background, read representation ≥8% of all reads, and technical replicate agreement. Depending on the dataset and analysis step, the optimal algorithm yielded sensitivities of 81%-90%, specificities of 97%-100%, areas under the curve of 91%-94%, positive predictive values of 92-100%, and negative predictive values of 88%-98%. Customization of the algorithms yielded 95%-100% concordance with gold-standard clonality determination, including rescue of indeterminate samples. Application to a set of unknowns showed concordance rates of 83%-96%. CONCLUSIONS: CR is an out-of-the-box ready and user-friendly software designed to identify clonal rearrangements in large NGS datasets for the diagnosis of lymphoid malignancies.

Plasma Metabolomic Signatures of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and the Impact of Genetic Variants on Phenotype-Driven Modules.

Background: Small studies have recently suggested that there are specific plasma metabolic signatures in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but there have been no large comprehensive study of metabolomic signatures in COPD that also integrate genetic variants. Materials and Methods: Fresh frozen plasma from 957 non-Hispanic white subjects in COPDGene was used to quantify 995 metabolites with Metabolon's global metabolomics platform. Metabolite associations with five COPD phenotypes (chronic bronchitis, exacerbation frequency, percent emphysema, post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume at one second [FEV1]/forced vital capacity [FVC], and FEV1 percent predicted) were assessed. A metabolome-wide association study was performed to find genetic associations with metabolite levels. Significantly associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms were tested for replication with independent metabolomic platforms and independent cohorts. COPD phenotype-driven modules were identified in network analysis integrated with genetic associations to assess gene-metabolite-phenotype interactions. Results: Of metabolites tested, 147 (14.8%) were significantly associated with at least 1 COPD phenotype. Associations with airflow obstruction were enriched for diacylglycerols and branched chain amino acids. Genetic associations were observed with 109 (11%) metabolites, 72 (66%) of which replicated in an independent cohort. For 20 metabolites, more than 20% of variance was explained by genetics. A sparse network of COPD phenotype-driven modules was identified, often containing metabolites missed in previous testing. Of the 26 COPD phenotype-driven modules, 6 contained metabolites with significant met-QTLs, although little module variance was explained by genetics. Conclusion: A dysregulation of systemic metabolism was predominantly found in COPD phenotypes characterized by airflow obstruction, where we identified robust heritable effects on individual metabolite abundances. However, network analysis, which increased the statistical power to detect associations missed previously in classic regression analyses, revealed that the genetic influence on COPD phenotype-driven metabolomic modules was modest when compared with clinical and environmental factors.

Bone Mineral Density across the Lifespan in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes.

CONTEXT: Fracture risk in people with type 1 diabetes (T1D) is higher than their peers without diabetes. OBJECTIVE: To compare bone mineral density (BMD) across the lifespan in individuals with T1D and age- and sex-matched healthy controls. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Subjects (5-71 years) with T1D and matched controls from ongoing research studies at Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Participants with lumbar spine BMD by dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) were divided into 2 groups: children ≤20 years and adults >20 years. INTERVENTION: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparison of BMD by diabetes status across age groups and sex using a linear least squares model adjusted for age and body mass index (body mass index (BMI) for adults; and BMI z-score in children). RESULTS: Lumbar spine BMD from 194 patients with T1D and 156 controls were analyzed. There was no difference in age- and BMI-adjusted lumbar spine BMD between patients with T1D and controls: among male children (least squares mean ± standard error of the mean [LSM ± SEM]; 0.80 ± 0.01 vs 0.80 ± 0.02 g/cm2, P = .98) or adults (1.01 ± 0.03 vs 1.01 ± 0.03 g/cm2, P = .95), and female children (0.78 ± 0.02 vs 0.81 ± 0.02 g/cm2, P = .23) or adults (0.98 ± 0.02 vs 1.01 ± 0.02 g/cm2, P = .19). Lumbar spine (0.98 ± 0.02 vs 1.04 ± 0.02 g/cm2, P = .05), femoral neck (0.71 ± 0.02 vs 0.79 ± 0.02 g/cm2, P = .003), and total hip (0.84 ± 0.02 vs 0.91 ± 0.02, P = .005) BMD was lower among postmenopausal women with T1D than postmenopausal women without diabetes. CONCLUSION: Across age groups, lumbar spine BMD was similar in patients with T1D compared with age- and sex-matched participants without diabetes, except postmenopausal females with T1D had lower lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip BMD.

Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid from COPD Patients Reveals More Compounds Associated with Disease than Matched Plasma.

Smoking causes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Though recent studies identified a COPD metabolomic signature in blood, no large studies examine the metabolome in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, a more direct representation of lung cell metabolism. We performed untargeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) on BAL and matched plasma from 115 subjects from the SPIROMICS cohort. Regression was performed with COPD phenotypes as the outcome and metabolites as the predictor, adjusted for clinical covariates and false discovery rate. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) grouped metabolites into modules which were then associated with phenotypes. K-means clustering grouped similar subjects. We detected 7939 and 10,561 compounds in BAL and paired plasma samples, respectively. FEV1/FVC (Forced Expiratory Volume in One Second/Forced Vital Capacity) ratio, emphysema, FEV1 % predicted, and COPD exacerbations associated with 1230, 792, eight, and one BAL compounds, respectively. Only two plasma compounds associated with a COPD phenotype (emphysema). Three BAL co-expression modules associated with FEV1/FVC and emphysema. K-means BAL metabolomic signature clustering identified two groups, one with more airway obstruction (34% of subjects, median FEV1/FVC 0.67), one with less (66% of subjects, median FEV1/FVC 0.77; p < 2 × 10-4). Associations between metabolites and COPD phenotypes are more robustly represented in BAL compared to plasma.

Systemic Markers of Adaptive and Innate Immunity Are Associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Severity and Spirometric Disease Progression.

The progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is associated with marked alterations in circulating immune cell populations, but no studies have characterized alterations in these cell types across the full spectrum of lung function impairment in current and former smokers. In 6,299 subjects from the COPDGene and ECLIPSE (Evaluation of COPD Longitudinally to Identify Predictive Surrogate Endpoints) studies, we related Coulter blood counts and proportions to cross-sectional forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), adjusting for current smoking status. We also related cell count measures to 3-year change in FEV1 in ECLIPSE subjects. In a subset of subjects with blood gene expression data, we used cell type deconvolution methods to infer the proportions of immune cell subpopulations, and we related these to COPD clinical status. We observed that FEV1 levels are positively correlated with lymphocytes and negatively correlated with myeloid populations, such as neutrophils and monocytes. In multivariate models, absolute cell counts and proportions were associated with cross-sectional FEV1, and lymphocytes, monocytes, and eosinophil counts were predictive of 3-year change in lung function. Using cell type deconvolution to study immune cell subpopulations, we observed that subjects with COPD had a lower proportion of CD4+ resting memory cells and naive B cells compared with smokers without COPD. Alterations in circulating immune cells in COPD support a mixed pattern of lymphocyte suppression and an enhanced myeloid cell immune response. Cell counts and proportions contribute independent information to models predicting lung function, suggesting a critical role for immune response in long-term COPD outcomes. Cell type deconvolution is a promising method for immunophenotyping in large cohorts.

Defective HIV-1 Proviruses Are Expressed and Can Be Recognized by Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes, which Shape the Proviral Landscape.

Despite antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1 persists in memory CD4+ T cells, creating a barrier to cure. The majority of HIV-1 proviruses are defective and considered clinically irrelevant. Using cells from HIV-1-infected individuals and reconstructed patient-derived defective proviruses, we show that defective proviruses can be transcribed into RNAs that are spliced and translated. Proviruses with defective major splice donors (MSDs) can activate novel splice sites to produce HIV-1 transcripts, and cells with these proviruses can be recognized by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Further, cells with proviruses containing lethal mutations upstream of CTL epitopes can also be recognized by CTLs, potentially through aberrant translation. Thus, CTLs may change the landscape of HIV-1 proviruses by preferentially targeting cells with specific types of defective proviruses. Additionally, the expression of defective proviruses will need to be considered in the measurement of HIV-1 latency reversal.

Visual Assessment of Chest Computed Tomographic Images Is Independently Useful for Genetic Association Analysis in Studies of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

RATIONALE: Automated analysis of computed tomographic (CT) lung images for epidemiologic and genetic association studies is increasingly common, but little is known about the utility of visual versus semiautomated emphysema and airway assessments for genetic association studies. OBJECTIVES: Assess the relative utility of visual versus semiautomated emphysema and airway assessments for genetic association studies. METHODS: A standardized inspection protocol was used to visually assess chest CT images for 1,540 non-Hispanic white subjects within the COPDGene Study for the presence and severity of radiographic features representing airway wall thickness and emphysema. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed, and two sets of candidate single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a higher prior likelihood of association were specified a priori for separate analysis. For each visual CT examination feature, a corresponding semiautomated CT feature(s) was identified for comparison in the same subjects. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: GWAS for visual features of chest CT scans identified a genome-wide significant association with visual emphysema at the 15q25 locus (P = 6.3e-9). In the a priori-specified set of 19 previously identified GWAS loci, 7 and 8 loci were associated with airway measures or emphysema measures, respectively. In the a priori-specified candidate gene set, 13 of 196 candidate genes harbored a nearby single-nucleotide polymorphism significantly associated with an emphysema phenotype. Visual CT examination associations were robust to adjustment for semiautomated correlates in many cases. CONCLUSIONS: Standardized visual assessments of emphysema and airway disease are significantly associated with genetic loci previously associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease susceptibility or semiautomated CT examination phenotypes in GWAS. Visual CT measures of emphysema and airways disease offer independent information for genetic association studies in relation to standard semiautomated measures.

Genome-Wide Association Study of the Genetic Determinants of Emphysema Distribution.

RATIONALE: Emphysema has considerable variability in the severity and distribution of parenchymal destruction throughout the lungs. Upper lobe-predominant emphysema has emerged as an important predictor of response to lung volume reduction surgery. Yet, aside from alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, the genetic determinants of emphysema distribution remain largely unknown. OBJECTIVES: To identify the genetic influences of emphysema distribution in non-alpha-1 antitrypsin-deficient smokers. METHODS: A total of 11,532 subjects with complete genotype and computed tomography densitometry data in the COPDGene (Genetic Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease [COPD]; non-Hispanic white and African American), ECLIPSE (Evaluation of COPD Longitudinally to Identify Predictive Surrogate Endpoints), and GenKOLS (Genetics of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease) studies were analyzed. Two computed tomography scan emphysema distribution measures (difference between upper-third and lower-third emphysema; ratio of upper-third to lower-third emphysema) were tested for genetic associations in all study subjects. Separate analyses in each study population were followed by a fixed effect metaanalysis. Single-nucleotide polymorphism-, gene-, and pathway-based approaches were used. In silico functional evaluation was also performed. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We identified five loci associated with emphysema distribution at genome-wide significance. These loci included two previously reported associations with COPD susceptibility (4q31 near HHIP and 15q25 near CHRNA5) and three new associations near SOWAHB, TRAPPC9, and KIAA1462. Gene set analysis and in silico functional evaluation revealed pathways and cell types that may potentially contribute to the pathogenesis of emphysema distribution. CONCLUSIONS: This multicohort genome-wide association study identified new genomic loci associated with differential emphysematous destruction throughout the lungs. These findings may point to new biologic pathways on which to expand diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical trial registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT 00608764).

Genome characterization of the selected long- and short-sleep mouse lines.

The Inbred Long- and Short-Sleep (ILS, ISS) mouse lines were selected for differences in acute ethanol sensitivity using the loss of righting response (LORR) as the selection trait. The lines show an over tenfold difference in LORR and, along with a recombinant inbred panel derived from them (the LXS), have been widely used to dissect the genetic underpinnings of acute ethanol sensitivity. Here we have sequenced the genomes of the ILS and ISS to investigate the DNA variants that contribute to their sensitivity difference. We identified ~2.7 million high-confidence SNPs and small indels and ~7000 structural variants between the lines; variants were found to occur in 6382 annotated genes. Using a hidden Markov model, we were able to reconstruct the genome-wide ancestry patterns of the eight inbred progenitor strains from which the ILS and ISS were derived, and found that quantitative trait loci that have been mapped for LORR were slightly enriched for DNA variants. Finally, by mapping and quantifying RNA-seq reads from the ILS and ISS to their strain-specific genomes rather than to the reference genome, we found a substantial improvement in a differential expression analysis between the lines. This work will help in identifying and characterizing the DNA sequence variants that contribute to the difference in ethanol sensitivity between the ILS and ISS and will also aid in accurate quantification of RNA-seq data generated from the LXS RIs.

Copy number polymorphisms near SLC2A9 are associated with serum uric acid concentrations.

BACKGROUND: Hyperuricemia is associated with multiple diseases, including gout, cardiovascular disease, and renal disease. Serum urate is highly heritable, yet association studies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and serum uric acid explain a small fraction of the heritability. Whether copy number polymorphisms (CNPs) contribute to uric acid levels is unknown. RESULTS: We assessed copy number on a genome-wide scale among 8,411 individuals of European ancestry (EA) who participated in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. CNPs upstream of the urate transporter SLC2A9 on chromosome 4p16.1 are associated with uric acid (χ2df2=3545, p=3.19×10-23). Effect sizes, expressed as the percentage change in uric acid per deleted copy, are most pronounced among women (3.974.935.87 [ 2.55097.5 denoting percentiles], p=4.57×10-23) and independent of previously reported SNPs in SLC2A9 as assessed by SNP and CNP regression models and the phasing SNP and CNP haplotypes (χ2df2=3190,p=7.23×10-08). Our finding is replicated in the Framingham Heart Study (FHS), where the effect size estimated from 4,089 women is comparable to ARIC in direction and magnitude (1.414.707.88, p=5.46×10-03). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to characterize CNPs in ARIC and the first genome-wide analysis of CNPs and uric acid. Our findings suggests a novel, non-coding regulatory mechanism for SLC2A9-mediated modulation of serum uric acid, and detail a bioinformatic approach for assessing the contribution of CNPs to heritable traits in large population-based studies where technical sources of variation are substantial.

Visualization and probability-based scoring of structural variants within repetitive sequences.

MOTIVATION: Repetitive sequences account for approximately half of the human genome. Accurately ascertaining sequences in these regions with next generation sequencers is challenging, and requires a different set of analytical techniques than for reads originating from unique sequences. Complicating the matter are repetitive regions subject to programmed rearrangements, as is the case with the antigen-binding domains in the Immunoglobulin (Ig) and T-cell receptor (TCR) loci. RESULTS: We developed a probability-based score and visualization method to aid in distinguishing true structural variants from alignment artifacts. We demonstrate the usefulness of this method in its ability to separate real structural variants from false positives generated with existing upstream analysis tools. We validated our approach using both target-capture and whole-genome experiments. Capture sequencing reads were generated from primary lymphoid tumors, cancer cell lines and an EBV-transformed lymphoblast cell line over the Ig and TCR loci. Whole-genome sequencing reads were from a lymphoblastoid cell-line. AVAILABILITY: We implement our method as an R package available at https://github.com/Eitan177/targetSeqView. Code to reproduce the figures and results are also available.

Fine mapping of V(D)J recombinase mediated rearrangements in human lymphoid malignancies.

BACKGROUND: Lymphocytes achieve diversity in antigen recognition in part by rearranging genomic DNA at loci encoding antibodies and cell surface receptors. The process, termed V(D)J recombination, juxtaposes modular coding sequences for antigen binding. Erroneous recombination events causing chromosomal translocations are recognized causes of lymphoid malignancies. Here we show a hybridization based method for sequence enrichment can be used to efficiently and selectively capture genomic DNA adjacent to V(D)J recombination breakpoints for massively parallel sequencing. The approach obviates the need for PCR amplification of recombined sequences. RESULTS: Using tailored informatics analyses to resolve alignment and assembly issues in these repetitive regions, we were able to detect numerous recombination events across a panel of cancer cell lines and primary lymphoid tumors, and an EBV transformed lymphoblast line. With reassembly, breakpoints could be defined to single base pair resolution. The observed events consist of canonical V(D)J or V-J rearrangements, non-canonical rearrangements, and putatively oncogenic reciprocal chromosome translocations. We validated non-canonical and chromosome translocation junctions by PCR and Sanger sequencing. The translocations involved the MYC and BCL-2 loci, and activation of these was consistent with histopathologic features of the respective B-cell tumors. We also show an impressive prevalence of novel erroneous V-V recombination events at sites not incorporated with other downstream coding segments. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate the ability of next generation sequencing to describe human V(D)J recombinase activity and provide a scalable means to chronicle off-target, unexpressed, and non-amplifiable recombinations occurring in the development of lymphoid cancers.

Performance assessment of copy number microarray platforms using a spike-in experiment.

MOTIVATION: Changes in the copy number of chromosomal DNA segments [copy number variants (CNVs)] have been implicated in human variation, heritable diseases and cancers. Microarray-based platforms are the current established technology of choice for studies reporting these discoveries and constitute the benchmark against which emergent sequence-based approaches will be evaluated. Research that depends on CNV analysis is rapidly increasing, and systematic platform assessments that distinguish strengths and weaknesses are needed to guide informed choice. RESULTS: We evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of six platforms, provided by four leading vendors, using a spike-in experiment. NimbleGen and Agilent platforms outperformed Illumina and Affymetrix in accuracy and precision of copy number dosage estimates. However, Illumina and Affymetrix algorithms that leverage single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) information make up for this disadvantage and perform well at variant detection. Overall, the NimbleGen 2.1M platform outperformed others, but only with the use of an alternative data analysis pipeline to the one offered by the manufacturer. AVAILABILITY: The data is available from http://rafalab.jhsph.edu/cnvcomp/. CONTACT: pevsner@jhmi.edu; fspencer@jhmi.edu; rafa@jhu.edu SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.