The China tuberculosis clinical trials consortium network: a model for international TB clinical trials capacity building.

BACKGROUND: With the second largest tuberculosis (TB) burden globally, China is committed to actively engage in international TB clinical trials to contribute to global TB research. However, lack of research capacity among local sites has been identified as a barrier. MAIN TEXT: The China Tuberculosis Clinical Trials Consortium (CTCTC) was initiated by Beijing Chest Hospital with investment from the US National Institutes of Health and technical support from Family Health International 360 in 2013, as a nationwide collaborative clinical trial network to strengthen selected clinical site research capacity and attract TB clinical trials. The program aims to: 1) recruit leading hospitals that care for TB patients; 2) conduct on-site assessment to identify capacity gaps and needs for improvement; 3) design and deliver capacity building activities; 4) attract and deliver high quality results for TB clinical trials. A total of 24 sites have joined CTCTC, covering 20 provinces in China. Twenty-two sites have been accredited by the National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) to be qualified to conduct TB clinical trials. The onsite assessment, extensive trainings among the CTCTC sites and young investigators have resulted in better understanding and improvement of the site capacity in conducting TB clinical trials. The establishment and growth of the CTCTC network has benefited from the good leadership, effective international cooperation and local commitment. Issues in human resources, regulatory environment and sustainability have been challenging the network from continuing growth. Clinical researchers have full-time clinical responsibilities in China and it is thus important to build a cadre of other human resources to assist. The regulatory environment is becoming friendlier in China to introduce international clinical trials to the CTCTC network. CONCLUSIONS: The CTCTC, with mature management structure and sustainable development model, which are distilled five key lessons for other developing countries or investigators of interest. They are the respectively using assessment-based approach to design tailored training package, understanding the availability of clinical researchers, providing solutions to maintain sustainability, understanding local regulatory environments and working with an international organization with local on-site team, respectively. Although, the experiences and capacity of China's TB hospitals in conducting clinical research vary. Considerable efforts to continue building the capacity are still needed, although the gap is smaller for a few top-tier hospitals.

Advances in basic and translational tuberculosis research: Proceedings of the first meeting of RePORT international.

RePORT International is a collaborative research network of investigators from multiple countries and institutions with the goal of establishing a bio-repository of specimens and clinical data for the study of active TB and latent TB infection (LTBI). During the first meeting of RePORT International in Boston, Massachusetts, the results of research pertinent to TB control and eradication were presented, including advances in the research of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) persistence and drug resistance, TB diagnostics, drug and vaccine development.

RePORT International: Advancing Tuberculosis Biomarker Research Through Global Collaboration.

Progress in tuberculosis clinical research is hampered by a lack of reliable biomarkers that predict progression from latent to active tuberculosis, and subsequent cure, relapse, or failure. Regional Prospective Observational Research in Tuberculosis (RePORT) International represents a consortium of regional cohorts (RePORT India, RePORT Brazil, and RePORT Indonesia) that are linked through the implementation of a Common Protocol for data and specimen collection, and are poised to address this critical research need. Each RePORT network is designed to support local, in-country tuberculosis-specific data and specimen biorepositories, and associated research. Taken together, the expected results include greater global clinical research capacity in high-burden settings, and increased local access to quality data and specimens for members of each network and their domestic and international collaborators. Additional networks are expected to be added, helping to spur tuberculosis treatment and prevention research around the world.

A randomized controlled trial of standard versus intensified tuberculosis diagnostics on treatment decisions by physicians in Northern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Routine tuberculosis culture remains unavailable in many high-burden areas, including Tanzania. This study sought to determine the impact of providing mycobacterial culture results over standard of care [unconcentrated acid-fast (AFB) smears] on management of persons with suspected tuberculosis. METHODS: Adults and children with suspected tuberculosis were randomized to standard (direct AFB smear only) or intensified (concentrated AFB smear and tuberculosis culture) diagnostics and followed for 8 weeks. The primary endpoint was appropriate treatment (i.e. antituberculosis therapy for those with tuberculosis, no antituberculous therapy for those without tuberculosis). RESULTS: Seventy participants were randomized to standard (n = 37, 53%) or intensive (n = 33, 47%) diagnostics. At 8 weeks, 100% (n = 22) of participants in follow up randomized to intensive diagnostics were receiving appropriate care, vs. 22 (88%) of 25 participants randomized to standard diagnostics (p = 0.14). Overall, 18 (26%) participants died; antituberculosis therapy was associated with lower mortality (9% who received antiuberculosis treatment died vs. 26% who did not, p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Under field conditions in a high burden setting, the impact of intensified diagnostics was blunted by high early mortality. Enhanced availability of rapid diagnostics must be linked to earlier access to care for outcomes to improve.

Old drugs, new purpose: retooling existing drugs for optimized treatment of resistant tuberculosis.

Treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis is hindered by the high toxicity and poor efficacy of second-line drugs. New compounds must be used together with existing drugs, yet clinical trials to optimize combinations of drugs for drug-resistant tuberculosis are lacking. We conducted an extensive review of existing in vitro, animal, and clinical studies involving World Health Organization-defined group 1, 2, and 4 drugs used in drug-resistant tuberculosis regimens to inform clinical trials and identify critical research questions. Results suggest that optimizing the dosing of pyrazinamide, the injectables, and isoniazid for drug-resistant tuberculosis is a high priority. Additional pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and toxicodynamic studies are needed for pyrazinamide and ethionamide. Clinical trials of the comparative efficacy and appropriate treatment duration of injectables are recommended. For isoniazid, rapid genotypic tests for Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutations should be nested in clinical trials. Further research focusing on optimization of dose and duration of drugs with activity against drug-resistant tuberculosis is paramount.

MCP1 SNPs and pulmonary tuberculosis in cohorts from West Africa, the USA and Argentina: lack of association or epistasis with IL12B polymorphisms.

The monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) is a chemokine that plays an important role in the recruitment of monocytes to M. tuberculosis infection sites, and previous studies have reported that genetic variants in MCP1 are associated with differential susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). We examined eight MCP1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a multi-ethnic, case-control design that included: 321 cases and 346 controls from Guinea-Bissau, 258 cases and 271 controls from The Gambia, 295 cases and 179 controls from the U.S. (African-Americans), and an additional set of 237 cases and 144 controls of European ancestry from the U.S. and Argentina. Two locus interactions were also examined for polymorphisms in MCP1 and interleukin 12B (IL12B), another gene implicated in PTB risk. Examination of previously associated MCP1 SNPs rs1024611 (-2581A/G), rs2857656 (-362G/C) and rs4586 (+900C/T) did not show evidence for association. One interaction between rs2857656 and IL12B SNP rs2288831 was observed among Africans but the effect was in the opposite direction in Guineans (OR = 1.90, p = 0.001) and Gambians (OR = 0.64, p = 0.024). Our data indicate that the effect of genetic variation within MCP1 is not clear cut and additional studies will be needed to elucidate its role in TB susceptibility.

Strategies for treating latent multiple-drug resistant tuberculosis: a decision analysis.

BACKGROUND: The optimal treatment for latent multiple-drug resistant tuberculosis infection remains unclear. In anticipation of future clinical trials, we modeled the expected performance of six potential regimens for treatment of latent multiple-drug resistant tuberculosis. METHODS: A computerized Markov model to analyze the total cost of treatment for six different regimens: Pyrazinamide/ethambutol, moxifloxacin monotherapy, moxifloxacin/pyrazinamide, moxifloxacin/ethambutol, moxifloxacin/ethionamide, and moxifloxacin/PA-824. Efficacy estimates were extrapolated from mouse models and examined over a wide range of assumptions. RESULTS: In the base-case, moxifloxacin monotherapy was the lowest cost strategy, but moxifloxacin/ethambutol was cost-effective at an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $21,252 per quality-adjusted life-year. Both pyrazinamide-containing regimens were dominated due to their toxicity. A hypothetical regimen of low toxicity and even modest efficacy was cost-effective compared to "no treatment." CONCLUSION: In our model, moxifloxacin/ethambutol was the preferred treatment strategy under a wide range of assumptions; pyrazinamide-containing regimens fared poorly because of high rates of toxicity. Although more data are needed on efficacy of treatments for latent MDR-TB infection, data on toxicity and treatment discontinuation, which are easier to obtain, could have a substantial impact on public health practice.

Potential economic viability of two proposed rifapentine-based regimens for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection.

RATIONALE: Rifapentine-based regimens for treating latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) are being considered for future clinical trials, but even if they prove effective, high drug costs may limit their economic viability. OBJECTIVES: To inform clinical trial design by estimating the potential costs and effectiveness of rifapentine-based regimens for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). METHODS: We used a Markov model to estimate cost and societal benefits for three regimens for treating LTBI: Isoniazid/rifapentine daily for one month, isoniazid/rifapentine weekly for three months (self-administered and directly-observed), and isoniazid daily for nine months; a strategy of "no treatment" used for comparison. Costs, quality-adjusted life-years gained, and instances of active tuberculosis averted were calculated for all arms. RESULTS: Both daily isoniazid/rifapentine for one month and weekly isoniazid/rifapentine for three months were less expensive and more effective than other strategies under a wide variety of clinically plausibly parameter estimates. Daily isoniazid/rifapentine for one month was the least expensive and most effective regimen. CONCLUSIONS: Daily isoniazid/rifapentine for one month and weekly isoniazid/rifapentine for three months should be studied in a large-scale clinical trial for efficacy. Because both regimens performed well even if their efficacy is somewhat reduced, study designers should consider relaxing non-inferiority boundaries.

Interleukin 12B (IL12B) genetic variation and pulmonary tuberculosis: a study of cohorts from The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, United States and Argentina.

We examined whether polymorphisms in interleukin-12B (IL12B) associate with susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) in two West African populations (from The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau) and in two independent populations from North and South America. Nine polymorphisms (seven SNPs, one insertion/deletion, one microsatellite) were analyzed in 321 PTB cases and 346 controls from Guinea-Bissau and 280 PTB cases and 286 controls from The Gambia. For replication we studied 281 case and 179 control African-American samples and 221 cases and 144 controls of European ancestry from the US and Argentina. First-stage single locus analyses revealed signals of association at IL12B 3' UTR SNP rs3212227 (unadjusted allelic p = 0.04; additive genotypic p = 0.05, OR = 0.78, 95% CI [0.61-0.99]) in Guinea-Bissau and rs11574790 (unadjusted allelic p = 0.05; additive genotypic p = 0.05, OR = 0.76, 95% CI [0.58-1.00]) in The Gambia. Association of rs3212227 was then replicated in African-Americans (rs3212227 allelic p = 0.002; additive genotypic p = 0.05, OR = 0.78, 95% CI [0.61-1.00]); most importantly, in the African-American cohort, multiple significant signals of association (seven of the nine polymorphisms tested) were detected throughout the gene. These data suggest that genetic variation in IL12B, a highly relevant candidate gene, is a risk factor for PTB in populations of African ancestry, although further studies will be required to confirm this association and identify the precise mechanism underlying it.

Perspective: The case for research justice: inclusion of patients with limited English proficiency in clinical research.

Persons with limited English proficiency (LEP) constitute a growing portion of the U.S. population, yet they are underrepresented in clinical research. This inherently limits the societal benefits of the research and its generalizability to ethnic populations living in the United States. To illustrate the complexity associated with including LEP participants in clinical research, the authors critically evaluated LEP consent requirements posted on the Web sites of 134 academic health centers in March 2008. They found wide variability with regard to consent policies and striking interinstitutional differences in posted IRB policies and attitudes toward consent of LEP patients in research. The authors argue this variation highlights competing concerns between autonomy and justice. Outcomes-based justice requires inclusion of LEP patients in the research, yet the consent process is often resource-intensive and complex. The authors suggest that more uniform and specific guidance from federal agencies for enrollment of LEP patients in clinical research be established and that this guidance explicitly recalibrate the current balance between autonomy and justice. Investigators and institutional review boards should also develop streamlined best practices to reduce unnecessary effort and expense associated with recruitment of LEP individuals. LEP individuals should have fair access to clinical research in order to fully realize individual and societal benefits of their participation and to ensure the generalizability of scientific discovery.

Variants in toll-like receptors 2 and 9 influence susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis in Caucasians, African-Americans, and West Africans.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a global public health problem and a source of preventable deaths each year, with 8.8 million new cases of TB and 1.6 million deaths worldwide in 2005. Approximately, 10% of infected individuals develop pulmonary or extrapulmonary TB, suggesting that host defense factors influence development of active disease. Toll-like receptor' (TLR) polymorphisms have been associated with regulation of TLR expression and development of active TB. In the present study, 71 polymorphisms in TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR6, and TLR9 were examined from 474 (295 cases and 179 controls) African-Americans, 381 (237 cases and 144 controls) Caucasians, and from 667 (321 cases and 346 controls) Africans from Guinea-Bissau for association with pulmonary TB using generalized estimating equations and logistic regression. Statistically significant associations were observed across populations at TLR9 and TLR2. The strongest evidence for association came at an insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism (-196 to -174) in TLR2 that associated with TB in both Caucasians (II vs. ID&DD, OR = 0.41 [95% CI 0.24-0.68], p = 0.0007) and Africans (II vs. ID&DD, OR = 0.70 [95% CI 0.51-0.95], p = 0.023). Our findings in three independent population samples indicate that variations in TLR2 and TLR9 might play important roles in determining susceptibility to TB.

HIV-specific health care utilization and mortality among tuberculosis/HIV coinfected persons.

Persons coinfected with tuberculosis (TB) and HIV are at high risk of death, in part due to suboptimal utilization of HIV-specific health care. We sought to better understand HIV-associated health care utilization and mortality in a retrospective cohort of TB/HIV coinfected cases reported in North Carolina 1993-2003. In this cohort, HIV was newly diagnosed during TB presentation for 34.2% of coinfected patients. Patients had advanced HIV (median CD4 104 cells/mm(3)) at TB diagnosis. Of 260 patients previously known to be HIV positive, 32.3% had seen a physician for HIV care in the previous 6 months and only 18.5% were taking antiretrovirals when TB was diagnosed; 34.8% of patients started antiretrovirals during TB treatment. Twenty-seven (5%) patients died prior to starting TB treatment; of those who survived, 13.6% (70/515) died prior to completing TB treatment, and 42.7% (220/515) died during a median 1408 days of follow-up. CD4 count (relative risk [RR] 0.53 per 100 cell increase, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.34, 1.02) and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) use during TB therapy (RR 0.37, 95% CI 0.13, 1.02) were independently associated with decreased mortality, while age greater than 45 (RR 2.18, 95% CI 1.11, 4.29) was independently associated with increased mortality during TB treatment. We conclude that TB/HIV coinfected patients had low utilization rates of HIV-specific care prior to TB diagnosis. Many did not receive potentially lifesaving HIV treatment while on TB therapy, and mortality was high as a result. Interventions to enhance utilization of HIV-related health care and integration of TB and HIV services should be studied to improve outcomes.

NOS2A, TLR4, and IFNGR1 interactions influence pulmonary tuberculosis susceptibility in African-Americans.

Tuberculosis (TB) has substantial mortality worldwide with 5-10% of those exposed progressing to active TB disease. Studies in mice and humans indicate that the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) molecule plays an important role in immune response to TB. A mixed case-control association study of individuals with TB, relatives, or close contact controls was performed in 726 individuals (279 case and 166 control African-Americans; 198 case and 123 control Caucasians). Thirty-nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were selected from the NOS2A gene for single SNP, haplotype, and multilocus interaction analyses with other typed candidate genes using generalized estimating equations. In African-Americans, ten NOS2A SNPs were associated with TB. The strongest associations were observed at rs2274894 (odds ratio (OR) = 1.84, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.23-2.77], p = 0.003) and rs7215373 (OR = 1.67, 95% CI [1.17-2.37], p = 0.004), both of which passed a false discovery rate correction for multiple comparisons (q* = 0.20). The strongest gene-gene interactions were observed between NOS2A rs2248814 and IFNGR1 rs1327474 (p = 0.0004) and NOS2A rs944722 and IFNGR1 rs1327474 (p = 0.0006). Three other SNPs in NOS2A interacted with TLR4 rs5030729 and five other NOS2A SNPs interacted with IFNGR1 rs1327474. No significant associations were observed in Caucasians. These results suggest that NOS2A variants may contribute to TB susceptibility, particularly in individuals of African descent, and may act synergistically with SNPs in TLR4 and IFNGR1.

Alcohol use and clinical manifestations of tuberculosis.

OBJECTIVES: Excess alcohol use represents a significant challenge in tuberculosis control. Whether alcohol use enhances transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is not known. METHODS: We analyzed North Carolina, USA surveillance data for all adult (>14 years) tuberculosis cases reported 1994-2006 (N = 5556). RESULTS: The prevalence of excess alcohol use among tuberculosis cases declined from 27.3% in 1994 to 17.9% in 2006. Cases with excess alcohol use were more likely to have pulmonary tuberculosis compared with cases without excess alcohol use (92.5% vs. 77.2%, p < 0.0001). Among pulmonary cases, excess alcohol use was associated with cavities on chest radiograph (36.8% vs. 28.2%, p < 0.0001) and positive acid-fast sputum smears (65.9% vs. 45.8%, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Although excess alcohol use is becoming less prevalent among tuberculosis cases in North Carolina, cases who use excess alcohol had clinical features associated with greater infectiousness, and represent a significant public health problem.

Therapeutic drug monitoring of antimycobacterial drugs in patients with both tuberculosis and advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility of therapeutic drug monitoring for adjusting low serum antimycobacterial concentrations in patients with both tuberculosis and advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. DATA SOURCE: De-identified dataset from a tuberculosis clinic. PATIENTS: Twenty-one patients (median age 38 yrs, range 25-68 yrs) with advanced HIV infection (CD4(+) cell count < 100 cells/mm(3)) who received treatment for active tuberculosis between March 2002 and September 2007. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We evaluated data based on the practices performed at the tuberculosis clinic. After the daily doses of isoniazid and rifamycins (rifampin or rifabutin) were ingested, serum concentrations were obtained at 2 hours for isoniazid and rifampin, at 3 hours for rifabutin, and, when possible, at 6 hours for all three drugs to detect delayed absorption. Antimycobacterial drug concentrations were compared with published reference levels, and dosages were adjusted to achieve desired concentrations. Costs of monitoring were recorded for all patients. Of the 21 patients, 18 (86%) had low serum concentrations of at least one drug 2 hours after ingestion: 2 (10%) had low isoniazid concentrations, 5 (24%) had low rifamycin concentrations, and 11 (52%) had low serum concentrations of both drugs. The median number of dosage adjustments to attain normal concentrations was 1 (range 0-4 adjustments). The median cost/patient for therapeutic drug monitoring was $619 (range $230-1948). The median final doses to achieve normal concentrations were isoniazid 600 mg/day (range 300-1500 mg/day), rifampin 1050 mg/day (range 600-1200 mg/day), and rifabutin 300 mg (range 150-450 mg) 3 times/week. No patient demonstrated any adverse effects attributed to these higher doses. CONCLUSION: Low serum concentrations of antituberculous drugs, which suggest malabsorption, are common among patients with advanced HIV who also have tuberculosis but can be overcome with higher doses. Therapeutic drug monitoring may be an effective tool to optimize therapy, but needs further study.

Costs and cost-effectiveness of four treatment regimens for latent tuberculosis infection.

RATIONALE: Isoniazid given daily for 9 months is the standard treatment for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), but its effectiveness is limited by poor completion rates. Shorter course regimens and regimens using directly observed therapy result in improved adherence but have higher upfront costs. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the costs and cost-effectiveness of regimens for the treatment of LTBI. METHODS: We used a computerized Markov model to estimate total societal costs and benefits associated with four regimens for the treatment of LTBI: self-administered isoniazid daily for 9 months, directly observed isoniazid twice-weekly for 9 months, directly observed isoniazid plus rifapentine once weekly for 3 months, and self-administered rifampin daily for 4 months. In the base-case analysis, subjects were assumed to have newly positive tuberculin skin tests after recent exposure to infectious tuberculosis. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We determined the costs of treatment, quality-adjusted life-years gained, and cases of active tuberculosis prevented. In the base-case analysis, rifampin dominated (less costly with increased benefits) all other regimens except isoniazid plus rifapentine, which was more effective at a cost $48,997 per quality-adjusted life year gained. Isoniazid plus rifapentine dominated all regimens at a relative risk of disease 5.2 times the baseline estimate, or with completion rates less than 34% for isoniazid or 37% for rifampin. Rifampin could be 17% less efficacious than self-administered isoniazid and still be cost-saving compared with this regimen. CONCLUSIONS: In our model, rifampin is cost-saving compared with the standard therapy of self-administered isoniazid. Isoniazid plus rifapentine is cost-saving for extremely high-risk patients and is cost-effective for lower-risk patients.

Alcohol use and clinical manifestations of tuberculosis.

OBJECTIVES: Excess alcohol use represents a significant challenge in tuberculosis control. Whether alcohol use enhances transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is not known. METHODS: We analyzed North Carolina, USA surveillance data for all adult (> 14 years) tuberculosis cases reported 1994-2006 (N = 5556). RESULTS: The prevalence of excess alcohol use among tuberculosis cases declined from 27.3% in 1994 to 17.9% in 2006. Cases with excess alcohol use were more likely to have pulmonary tuberculosis compared with cases without excess alcohol use (92.5% vs. 77.2%, p < 0.0001). Among pulmonary cases, excess alcohol use was associated with cavities on chest radiograph (36.8% vs. 28.2%, p < 0.0001) and positive acid-fast sputum smears (65.9% vs. 45.8%, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Although excess alcohol use is becoming less prevalent among tuberculosis cases in North Carolina, cases who use excess alcohol had clinical features associated with greater infectiousness, and represent a significant public health problem.

Association between 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer sequence groups of Mycobacterium avium complex and pulmonary disease.

Organisms within the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) may have differential virulence. We compared 33 subjects with MAC pulmonary disease to 75 subjects with a single positive culture without disease. M. avium isolates were significantly more likely to be associated with MAC pulmonary disease (odds ratio = 5.14, 95% confidence interval = 1.25 to 22.73) than M. intracellulare.

The virologic, immunologic, and clinical effects of interleukin 2 with potent antiretroviral therapy in patients with moderately advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: a randomized controlled clinical trial--AIDS Clinical Trials Group 328.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin 2 (IL-2) administration increases CD4 counts in persons with higher counts. This study investigated persons with moderately advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). METHODS: Two hundred four patients with CD4 T-cell counts from 50/microL to 350/microL who were treatment naive or had been treated only with reverse transcriptase inhibitors began a specified protease inhibitor HAART regimen. Virologic responders (< or =5000 copies/mL) at 12 weeks were randomized to open-label continuous-infusion IL-2 (IV IL-2), subcutaneous IL-2 (SC IL-2), or HAART alone. Thirty were not randomized and 15 enrolled in a substudy, leaving 159 for analysis. Subjects continued HAART alone for 72 weeks (n = 52) or with IV IL-2 (n = 53) or SC IL-2 (n = 54) for 5 days every 8 weeks. The IV IL-2 subjects could switch to SC IL-2 if their CD4 T-cell count increased by 100/microL or by 25%. RESULTS: Patients receiving IV or SC IL-2 had greater increases in CD4 cell counts. At week 84, median increases were 459/microL, 312/microL, and 102/microL. Increases of greater than 50% at week 60 (primary end point) were achieved in 39 patients (81%) and 32 (67%) in the IV and SC IL-2 arms, respectively, compared with 13 (29%) in the HAART arm (P<.001 for both). Treatment with IL-2 did not increase plasma human immunodeficiency virus RNA levels. There were fewer new AIDS-defining events in the IV (P = .006) and SC (P = .03) IL-2 groups than in the HAART group (0, 1, and 7, respectively). Drug-related adverse events were more frequent with IL-2 treatment. CONCLUSION: Addition of IL-2 to HAART can significantly expand CD4 T-cell counts in moderately advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection, without loss of virologic control.