Identification and molecular characterization of Mycobacterium bovis DNA in GeneXpert® MTB/RIF ultra-positive, culture-negative sputum from a rural community in South Africa.

This study investigated the presence of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) DNA in archived human sputum samples previously collected from residents who reside adjacent to the M. bovis-endemic Hluhluwe-iMfolozi wildlife park, South Africa (SA). Sixty-eight sputum samples were GeneXpert MTB/RIF Ultra-positive for M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) DNA but culture negative for M. tuberculosis. Amplification and Sanger sequencing of hsp65 and rpoB genes from DNA extracted from stored heat-inactivated sputum samples confirmed the presence of detectable amounts of MTBC from 20 out of the 68 sputum samples. Region of difference PCR, spoligotyping and gyrB long-read amplicon deep sequencing identified M. bovis (n = 10) and M. tuberculosis (n = 7). Notably, M. bovis spoligotypes SB0130 and SB1474 were identified in 4 samples, with SB0130 previously identified in local cattle and wildlife and SB1474 exclusively in African buffaloes in the adjacent park. M. bovis DNA in sputum, from people living near the park, underscores zoonotic transmission potential in SA. Identification of spoligotypes specifically associated with wildlife only and spoligotypes found in livestock as well as wildlife, highlights the complexity of TB epidemiology at wildlife-livestock-human interfaces. These findings support the need for integrated surveillance and control strategies to curb potential spillover and for the consideration of human M. bovis infection in SA patients with positive Ultra results.

HIV, multimorbidity, and health-related quality of life in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A population-based study.

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) assesses the perceived impact of health status across life domains. Although research has explored the relationship between specific conditions, including HIV, and HRQoL in low-resource settings, less attention has been paid to the association between multimorbidity and HRQoL. In a secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from the Vukuzazi ("Wake up and know ourselves" in isiZulu) study, which identified the prevalence and overlap of non-communicable and infectious diseases in the uMkhanyakunde district of KwaZulu-Natal, we (1) evaluated the impact of multimorbidity on HRQoL; (2) determined the relative associations among infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases (NCDs), and HRQoL; and (3) examined the effects of controlled versus non-controlled disease on HRQoL. HRQoL was measured using the EQ-5D-3L, which assesses overall perceived health, five specific domains (mobility, self-care, usual activities, pain/discomfort, and anxiety/depression), and three levels of problems (no problems, some problems, and extreme problems). Six diseases and disease states were included in this analysis: HIV, diabetes, stroke, heart attack, high blood pressure, and TB. After examining the degree to which number of conditions affects HRQoL, we estimated the effect of joint associations among combinations of diseases, each HRQoL domain, and overall health. Then, in one set of ridge regression models, we assessed the relative impact of HIV, diabetes, stroke, heart attack, high blood pressure, and tuberculosis on the HRQoL domains; in a second set of models, the contribution of treatment (controlled vs. uncontrolled disease) was added. A total of 14,008 individuals were included in this analysis. Having more conditions adversely affected perceived health (r = -0.060, p<0.001, 95% CI: -0.073 to -0.046) and all HRQoL domains. Infectious conditions were related to better perceived health (r = 0.051, p<0.001, 95% CI: 0.037 to 0.064) and better HRQoL, whereas non-communicable diseases (NCDs) were associated with worse perceived health (r = -0.124, p<0.001, -95% CI: 0.137 to -0.110) and lower HRQoL. Particular combinations of NCDs were detrimental to perceived health, whereas HIV, which was characterized by access to care and suppressed viral load in the large majority of those affected, was counterintuitively associated with better perceived health. With respect to disease control, unique combinations of uncontrolled NCDs were significantly related to worse perceived health, and controlled HIV was associated with better perceived health. The presence of controlled and uncontrolled NCDs was associated with poor perceived health and worse HRQoL, whereas the presence of controlled HIV was associated with improved HRQoL. HIV disease control may be critical for HRQoL among people with HIV, and incorporating NCD prevention and attention to multimorbidity into healthcare strategies may improve HRQoL.

Corrigendum: Defining discriminatory antibody fingerprints in active and latent tuberculosis.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856906.].

Measuring indirect transmission-reducing effects in tuberculosis vaccine efficacy trials: why and how?

Tuberculosis is the leading bacterial cause of death globally. In 2021, 10·6 million people developed symptomatic tuberculosis and 1·6 million died. Seven promising vaccine candidates that aim to prevent tuberculosis disease in adolescents and adults are currently in late-stage clinical trials. Conventional phase 3 trials provide information on the direct protection conferred against infection or disease in vaccinated individuals, but they tell us little about possible indirect (ie, transmission-reducing) effects that afford protection to unvaccinated individuals. As a result, proposed phase 3 trial designs will not provide key information about the overall effect of introducing a vaccine programme. Information on the potential for indirect effects can be crucial for policy makers deciding whether and how to introduce tuberculosis vaccines into immunisation programmes. We describe the rationale for measuring indirect effects, in addition to direct effects, of tuberculosis vaccine candidates in pivotal trials and lay out several options for incorporating their measurement into phase 3 trial designs.

Newborn bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccination induces robust infant interferon-γ-expressing natural killer cell responses to mycobacteria.

OBJECTIVES: The bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine is usually administered at birth to protect against severe forms of tuberculosis in children. BCG also confers some protection against other infections, possibly mediated by innate immune training. We investigated whether newborn BCG vaccination modulates myeloid and natural killer (NK) cell responses to mycobacteria. METHODS: BCG vaccination was either administered at birth or delayed to 6 or 10 weeks of age in 130 South African infants. Whole blood was stimulated with BCG and clusters of differentiation (CD)4+ T, myeloid, and NK cell responses were measured by flow cytometry; the levels of secreted cytokines were measured by a multiplex bead array. RESULTS: Newborn BCG vaccination was associated with significantly higher frequencies of BCG-reactive, cytokine-expressing CD4+ T cells, and interferon (IFN)-γ-expressing NK cells than in unvaccinated infants but no differences in cytokine-expressing CD33+ myeloid cells were observed. The induction of BCG-reactive IFN-γ-expressing NK cells was not associated with the markers of NK cell maturation, differentiation, or cytokine receptor expression. BCG-reactive NK cell responses correlated directly with the levels of secreted interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ and the innate pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in BCG-vaccinated infants only. CONCLUSION: We showed that BCG-reactive IFN-γ-expressing NK cells are strongly induced by BCG vaccination in infants and are likely amplified through bystander cytokines.

T cell receptor repertoires associated with control and disease progression following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection.

Antigen-specific, MHC-restricted αß T cells are necessary for protective immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but the ability to broadly study these responses has been limited. In the present study, we used single-cell and bulk T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing and the GLIPH2 algorithm to analyze M. tuberculosis-specific sequences in two longitudinal cohorts, comprising 166 individuals with M. tuberculosis infection who progressed to either tuberculosis (n = 48) or controlled infection (n = 118). We found 24 T cell groups with similar TCR-ß sequences, predicted by GLIPH2 to have common TCR specificities, which were associated with control of infection (n = 17), and others that were associated with progression to disease (n = 7). Using a genome-wide M. tuberculosis antigen screen, we identified peptides targeted by T cell similarity groups enriched either in controllers or in progressors. We propose that antigens recognized by T cell similarity groups associated with control of infection can be considered as high-priority targets for future vaccine development.

End-point definition and trial design to advance tuberculosis vaccine development.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a leading infectious cause of death worldwide and the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has negatively impacted the global TB burden of disease indicators. If the targets of TB mortality and incidence reduction set by the international community are to be met, new more effective adult and adolescent TB vaccines are urgently needed. There are several new vaccine candidates at different stages of clinical development. Given the limited funding for vaccine development, it is crucial that trial designs are as efficient as possible. Prevention of infection (POI) approaches offer an attractive opportunity to accelerate new candidate vaccines to advance into large and expensive prevention of disease (POD) efficacy trials. However, POI approaches are limited by imperfect current tools to measure Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection end-points. POD trials need to carefully consider the type and number of microbiological tests that define TB disease and, if efficacy against subclinical (asymptomatic) TB disease is to be tested, POD trials need to explore how best to define and measure this form of TB. Prevention of recurrence trials are an alternative approach to generate proof of concept for efficacy, but optimal timing of vaccination relative to treatment must still be explored. Novel and efficient approaches to efficacy trial design, in addition to an increasing number of candidates entering phase 2-3 trials, would accelerate the long-standing quest for a new TB vaccine.

Defining Discriminatory Antibody Fingerprints in Active and Latent Tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is among the leading causes of death worldwide from a single infectious agent, second only to COVID-19 in 2020. TB is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), that results either in a latent or active form of disease, the latter associated with Mtb spread. In the absence of an effective vaccine, epidemiologic modeling suggests that aggressive treatment of individuals with active TB (ATB) may curb spread. Yet, clinical discrimination between latent (LTB) and ATB remains a challenge. While antibodies are widely used to diagnose many infections, the utility of antibody-based tests to diagnose ATB has only regained significant traction recently. Specifically, recent interest in the humoral immune response to TB has pointed to potential differences in both targeted antigens and antibody features that can discriminate latent and active TB. Here we aimed to integrate these observations and broadly profile the humoral immune response across individuals with LTB or ATB, with and without HIV co-infection, to define the most discriminatory humoral properties and diagnose TB disease more easily. Using 209 Mtb antigens, striking differences in antigen-recognition were observed across latently and actively infected individuals that was modulated by HIV serostatus. However, ATB and LTB could be discriminated, irrespective of HIV-status, based on a combination of both antibody levels and Fc receptor-binding characteristics targeting both well characterized (like lipoarabinomannan, 38 kDa or antigen 85) but also novel Mtb antigens (including Rv1792, Rv1528, Rv2435C or Rv1508). These data reveal new Mtb-specific immunologic markers that can improve the classification of ATB versus LTB.

Durable Expansion of TCR-δ Meta-Clonotypes After BCG Revaccination in Humans.

Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) has been used for 100 years and prevents disseminated tuberculosis and death in young children. However, it shows only partial efficacy against pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) in adults, so new vaccines are urgently needed. The protective efficacy of BCG depends on T cells, which are typically activated by pathogen-derived protein antigens that bind to highly polymorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Some T cells recognize non-protein antigens via antigen presenting systems that are independent of genetic background, leading to their designation as donor-unrestricted T (DURT) cells. Whether live whole cell vaccines, like BCG, can induce durable expansions of DURT cells in humans is not known. We used combinatorial tetramer staining, multi-parameter flow cytometry, and immunosequencing to comprehensively characterize the effect of BCG on activation and expansion of DURT cell subsets. We examined peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) derived from a Phase I study of South African adults in which samples were archived at baseline, 3 weeks, and 52 weeks post-BCG revaccination. We did not observe a change in the frequency of total mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, germline encoded mycolyl-reactive (GEM) T cells, or γδ T cells at 52 weeks post-BCG. However, immunosequencing revealed a set of TCR-δ clonotypes that were expanded at 52 weeks post-BCG revaccination. These expanded clones expressed the Vδ2 gene segment and could be further defined on the basis of biochemical similarity into several 'meta-clonotypes' that likely recognize similar epitopes. Our data reveal that BCG vaccination leads to durable expansion of DURT cell clonotypes despite a limited effect on total circulating frequencies in the blood and have implications for defining the immunogenicity of candidate whole cell TB vaccines.

Host transcriptomic signatures of tuberculosis can predict immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV patients.

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) can be a complication of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in patients with advanced HIV, but its pathogenesis is uncertain. In tuberculosis (TB) endemic countries, IRIS is often associated with mycobacterial infections or Bacille-Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination in children. With no predictive or confirmatory tests at present, IRIS remains a diagnosis of exclusion. We tested whether RISK6 and Sweeney3, validated immune-based blood transcriptomic signatures for TB, could predict or diagnose IRIS in HIV+ children and adults. Transcripts were measured by RT-qPCR in BCG-vaccinated children and by microarray in HIV+ adults with TB including TB meningitis (TBM). Signature scores before ART initiation and up to IRIS diagnosis were compared between participants who did or did not develop IRIS. In children, RISK6 and Sweeney3 discriminated IRIS cases from non-IRIS controls before ART, and at diagnosis. In adults with TB, RISK6 discriminated IRIS cases from controls after half-week on ART and at TB-IRIS onset. In adults with TBM, only Sweeney3 discriminated IRIS cases from controls before ART, while both signatures distinguished cases from controls at TB-IRIS onset. Parsimonious whole blood transcriptomic signatures for TB showed potential to predict and diagnose IRIS in HIV+ children and adults.

REL and BHLHE40 Variants Are Associated with IL-12 and IL-10 Responses and Tuberculosis Risk.

The major human genes regulating Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced immune responses and tuberculosis (TB) susceptibility are poorly understood. Although IL-12 and IL-10 are critical for TB pathogenesis, the genetic factors that regulate their expression in humans are unknown. CNBP, REL, and BHLHE40 are master regulators of IL-12 and IL-10 signaling. We hypothesized that common variants in CNBP, REL, and BHLHE40 were associated with IL-12 and IL-10 production from dendritic cells, and that these variants also influence adaptive immune responses to bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination and TB susceptibility. We characterized the association between common variants in CNBP, REL, and BHLHE40, innate immune responses in dendritic cells and monocyte-derived macrophages, BCG-specific T cell responses, and susceptibility to pediatric and adult TB in human populations. BHLHE40 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs4496464 was associated with increased BHLHE40 expression in monocyte-derived macrophages and increased IL-10 from peripheral blood dendritic cells and monocyte-derived macrophages after LPS and TB whole-cell lysate stimulation. SNP BHLHE40 rs11130215, in linkage disequilibrium with rs4496464, was associated with increased BCG-specific IL-2+CD4+ T cell responses and decreased risk for pediatric TB in South Africa. SNPs REL rs842634 and rs842618 were associated with increased IL-12 production from dendritic cells, and SNP REL rs842618 was associated with increased risk for TB meningitis. In summary, we found that genetic variations in REL and BHLHE40 are associated with IL-12 and IL-10 cytokine responses and TB clinical outcomes. Common human genetic regulation of well-defined intermediate cellular traits provides insights into mechanisms of TB pathogenesis.

Effects of BCG vaccination on donor unrestricted T cells in two prospective cohort studies.

BACKGROUND: Non-protein antigen classes can be presented to T cells by near-monomorphic antigen-presenting molecules such as CD1, MR1, and butyrophilin 3A1. Such T cells, referred to as donor unrestricted T (DURT) cells, typically express stereotypic T cell receptors. The near-unrestricted nature of DURT cell antigen recognition is of particular interest for vaccine development, and we sought to define the roles of DURT cells, including MR1-restricted MAIT cells, CD1b-restricted glucose monomycolate (GMM)-specific T cells, CD1d-restricted NKT cells, and γδ T cells, in vaccination against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. METHODS: We compared and characterized DURT cells following primary bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination in a cohort of vaccinated and unvaccinated infants, as well as before and after BCG-revaccination in adults. FINDINGS: BCG (re)vaccination did not modulate peripheral blood frequencies, T cell activation or memory profiles of MAIT cells, CD1b-restricted GMM-specific and germline-encoded mycolyl-reactive (GEM) cells or CD1d-restricted NKT cells. By contrast, primary BCG vaccination was associated with increased frequencies of γδ T cells as well as a novel subset of CD26+CD161+TRAV1-2- IFN-γ-expressing CD4+ T cells in infants. INTERPRETATION: Our findings, that most DURT cell populations were not modulated by BCG, do not preclude a role of BCG in modulating other qualitative aspects of DURT cells. More studies are required to understand the full potential of DURT cells in new TB vaccine strategies. FUNDING: Aeras, the National Institutes of Health, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Skin Reaction Predicts Enhanced Mycobacteria-Specific T-Cell Responses in Infants: A Post Hoc Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Rationale: Scar formation following bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination has been associated with lower all-cause mortality; the relation between scar and mycobacteria-specific protection against tuberculosis is debated. Objectives: To evaluate the association between BCG skin reaction and mycobacteria-specific immune responses. Methods: A post hoc analysis was done among 214 infants in Australia randomized to vaccination with one of three BCG vaccine strains (BCG-Denmark, BCG-Japan, or BCG-Russia) given at birth or BCG-Denmark given at 2 months of age. Measurements and Main Results: BCG skin reaction size and characteristics 10 weeks after vaccination were related to the in vitro mycobacteria-specific immune responses measured in stimulated whole blood. The size and characteristics of the skin reaction correlated positively with in vitro immune responses, even after adjusting for BCG vaccine strain and age at vaccination. Specifically, the reaction size and characteristics correlated with the proportion of mycobacteria-specific polyfunctional CD4+ T cells after stimulation with BCG and PPD and, to a lesser extent, after stimulation with Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium ulcerans. A similar correlation was observed with concentrations of IFN-γ, IL-2, tumor necrosis factor, and IL-13 in the supernatant after stimulation with BCG, PPD, and M. tuberculosis and to some degree for the proportions of mycobacteria-specific polyfunctional CD8+ T cells and CD107+ cytotoxic cells. Conclusions: BCG skin reaction correlated with the magnitude of mycobacteria-specific T-cell responses. As T-cell responses play a key role in defense against mycobacteria, the relationship between BCG scar formation and protection against tuberculosis should be revisited. This may also extend to the need for BCG revaccination in scar-negative individuals.Clinical trial registered with www.australianclinicaltrials.gov.au/clinical-trial-registries (ACTRN12608000227392).

Convergence of infectious and non-communicable disease epidemics in rural South Africa: a cross-sectional, population-based multimorbidity study.

BACKGROUND: There has been remarkable progress in the treatment of HIV throughout sub-Saharan Africa, but there are few data on the prevalence and overlap of other significant causes of disease in HIV endemic populations. Our aim was to identify the prevalence and overlap of infectious and non-communicable diseases in such a population in rural South Africa. METHODS: We did a cross-sectional study of eligible adolescents and adults from the Africa Health Research Institute demographic surveillance area in the uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The participants, who were 15 years or older, were invited to participate at a mobile health camp. Medical history for HIV, tuberculosis, hypertension, and diabetes was established through a questionnaire. Blood pressure measurements, chest x-rays, and tests of blood and sputum were taken to estimate the population prevalence and geospatial distribution of HIV, active and lifetime tuberculosis, elevated blood glucose, elevated blood pressure, and combinations of these. FINDINGS: 17 118 adolescents and adults were recruited from May 25, 2018, to Nov 28, 2019, and assessed. Overall, 52·1% (95% CI 51·3-52·9) had at least one active disease. 34·2% (33·5-34·9) had HIV, 1·4% (1·2-1·6) had active tuberculosis, 21·8% (21·2-22·4) had lifetime tuberculosis, 8·5% (8·1-8·9) had elevated blood glucose, and 23·0% (22·4-23·6) had elevated blood pressure. Appropriate treatment and optimal disease control was highest for HIV (78·1%), and lower for elevated blood pressure (42·5%), active tuberculosis (29·6%), and elevated blood glucose (7·1%). Disease prevalence differed notably by sex, across age groups, and geospatially: men had a higher prevalence of active and lifetime tuberculosis, whereas women had a substantially high prevalence of HIV at 30-49 years and an increasing prevalence of multiple and poorly controlled non-communicable diseases when older than 50 years. INTERPRETATION: We found a convergence of infectious and non-communicable disease epidemics in a rural South African population, with HIV well treated relative to all other diseases, but tuberculosis, elevated blood glucose, and elevated blood pressure poorly diagnosed and treated. A public health response that expands the successes of the HIV testing and treatment programme to provide multidisease care targeted to specific populations is required to optimise health in such settings in sub-Saharan Africa. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the South African Department of Science and Innovation, South African Medical Research Council, and South African Population Research Infrastructure Network. TRANSLATION: For the isiZulu translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Mycobacterium ulcerans-specific immune response after immunisation with bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine provides partial protection against Buruli ulcer caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans in epidemiological studies. This study aimed to quantify M. ulcerans-specific immune responses induced by BCG immunisation. METHODS: Intracellular cytokine analysis of in-vitro experiments done 10 weeks after BCG immunisation in 130 Australian infants randomised to one of three BCG vaccine strains given either at birth (BCG-Denmark, BCG-Japan, or BCG-Russia) or at two months of age (BCG-Denmark). RESULTS: Proportions of polyfunctional CD4+ T-cells were higher in M. ulcerans-stimulated compared to unstimulated control samples. These proportions were not influenced by the vaccine strain or timing of the immunisation. The M. ulcerans-specific immune responses showed similar patterns to those observed in M. tuberculosis-stimulated samples, although they were of lower magnitude. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that BCG immunisation induces M. ulcerans-specific immune responses in infants, likely explaining the cross-protective effect observed in epidemiological studies. (ACTRN12608000227392).

BCG Vaccination of Infants Confers Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strain-Specific Immune Responses by Leukocytes.

The efficacy of bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination against tuberculosis is highly variable, and protective immunity elicited by BCG is poorly understood. We compared the cytokine/chemokine profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) obtained from infants BCG-vaccinated at birth to those of PBMC obtained from infants before (delayed) BCG vaccination. The PBMC from 10-week-old BCG-vaccinated infants released higher levels of pro-inflammatory molecules than PBMCs from the nonvaccinated counterpart. In vitro exposure of PBMCs from BCG-vaccinated infants, but not nonvaccinated infants, to two different Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains showed distinct pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine patterns. Thus, BCG-induced infant immune responses and their potential protective capacity may be shaped by the nature of the infecting Mtb strain.

Postnatal Expansion, Maturation, and Functionality of MR1T Cells in Humans.

MR1-restricted T (MR1T) cells are defined by their recognition of metabolite antigens presented by the monomorphic MHC class 1-related molecule, MR1, the most highly conserved MHC class I related molecule in mammalian species. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are the predominant subset of MR1T cells expressing an invariant TCR α-chain, TRAV1-2. These cells comprise a T cell subset that recognizes and mediates host immune responses to a broad array of microbial pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Here, we sought to characterize development of circulating human MR1T cells as defined by MR1-5-OP-RU tetramer labeling and of the TRAV1-2+ MAIT cells defined by expression of TRAV1-2 and high expression of CD26 and CD161 (TRAV1-2+CD161++CD26++ cells). We analyzed postnatal expansion, maturation, and functionality of peripheral blood MR1-5-OP-RU tetramer+ MR1T cells in cohorts from three different geographic settings with different tuberculosis (TB) vaccination practices, levels of exposure to and infection with M. tuberculosis. Early after birth, frequencies of MR1-5-OP-RU tetramer+ MR1T cells increased rapidly by several fold. This coincided with the transition from a predominantly CD4+ and TRAV1-2- population in neonates, to a predominantly TRAV1-2+CD161++CD26++ CD8+ population. We also observed that tetramer+ MR1T cells that expressed TNF upon mycobacterial stimulation were very low in neonates, but increased ~10-fold in the first year of life. These functional MR1T cells in all age groups were MR1-5-OP-RU tetramer+TRAV1-2+ and highly expressed CD161 and CD26, markers that appeared to signal phenotypic and functional maturation of this cell subset. This age-associated maturation was also marked by the loss of naïve T cell markers on tetramer+ TRAV1-2+ MR1T cells more rapidly than tetramer+TRAV1-2- MR1T cells and non-MR1T cells. These data suggest that neonates have infrequent populations of MR1T cells with diverse phenotypic attributes; and that exposure to the environment rapidly and preferentially expands the MR1-5-OP-RU tetramer+TRAV1-2+ population of MR1T cells, which becomes the predominant population of functional MR1T cells early during childhood.

Targeting Unconventional Host Components for Vaccination-Induced Protection Against TB.

The current tuberculosis (TB) vaccine, Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), is effective in preventing TB in young children but was developed without a basic understanding of human immunology. Most modern TB vaccine candidates have targeted CD4+ T cell responses, thought to be important for protection against TB disease, but not known to be sufficient or critical for protection. Advances in knowledge of host responses to TB afford opportunities for developing TB vaccines that target immune components not conventionally considered. Here, we describe the potential of targeting NK cells, innate immune training, B cells and antibodies, and Th17 cells in novel TB vaccine development. We also discuss attempts to target vaccine immunity specifically to the lung, the primary disease site in humans.