United States Military Fatalities During Operation Inherent Resolve and Operation Freedom's Sentinel.

BACKGROUND: Military operations provide a unified action and strategic approach to achieve national goals and objectives. Mortality reviews from military operations can guide injury prevention and casualty care efforts. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted on all U.S. military fatalities from Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) in Iraq (2014-2021) and Operation Freedom's Sentinel (OFS) in Afghanistan (2015-2021). Data were obtained from autopsy reports and other existing records. Fatalities were evaluated for population characteristics; manner, cause, and location of death; and underlying atherosclerosis. Non-suicide trauma fatalities were also evaluated for injury severity, mechanism of death, injury survivability, death preventability, and opportunities for improvement. RESULTS: Of 213 U.S. military fatalities (median age, 29 years; male, 93.0%; prehospital, 89.2%), 49.8% were from OIR, and 50.2% were from OFS. More OIR fatalities were Reserve and National Guard forces (OIR 22.6%; OFS 5.6%), conventional forces (OIR 82.1%; OFS 65.4%), and support personnel (OIR 61.3%; OFS 33.6%). More OIR fatalities also resulted from disease and non-battle injury (OIR 83.0%; OFS 28.0%). The leading cause of death was injury (OIR 81.1%; OFS 98.1%). Manner of death differed as more homicides (OIR 18.9%; OFS 72.9%) were seen in OFS, and more deaths from natural causes (OIR 18.9%; OFS 1.9%) and suicides (OIR 29.2%; OFS 6.5%) were seen in OIR. The prevalence of underlying atherosclerosis was 14.2% in OIR and 18.7% in OFS. Of 146 non-suicide trauma fatalities, most multiple/blunt force injury deaths (62.2%) occurred in OIR, and most blast injury deaths (77.8%) and gunshot wound deaths (76.6%) occurred in OFS. The leading mechanism of death was catastrophic tissue destruction (80.8%). Most fatalities had non-survivable injuries (80.8%) and non-preventable deaths (97.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive mortality reviews should routinely be conducted for all military operation deaths. Understanding death from both injury and disease can guide preemptive and responsive efforts to reduce death among military forces.

United States military fatalities during Operation New Dawn.

BACKGROUND: Military operations vary by scope, purpose, and intensity, each having unique forces and actions to execute a mission. Evaluation of military operation fatalities guides current and future casualty care. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted of all US military fatalities from Operation New Dawn in Iraq, 2010 to 2011. Data were obtained from autopsies and other records. Population characteristics, manner of death, cause of death, and location of death were analyzed. All fatalities were evaluated for concomitant evidence of underlying atherosclerosis. Nonsuicide trauma fatalities were also reviewed for injury severity, mechanism of death, injury survivability, death preventability, and opportunities for improvement. RESULTS: Of 74 US military Operation New Dawn fatalities (median age, 26 years; male, 98.6%; conventional forces, 100%; prehospital, 82.4%) the leading cause of death was injury (86.5%). The manner of death was primarily homicide (55.4%), followed by suicide (17.6%), natural (13.5%), and accident (9.5%). Fatalities were divided near evenly between combatants (52.7%) and support personnel (47.3%), and between battle injury (51.4%) and disease and nonbattle injury (48.6%). Natural and suicide death was higher (p < 0.01, 0.02) among support personnel who were older (p = 0.05) with more reserve/national guard personnel (p = 0.01). Total population prevalence of underlying atherosclerosis was 18.9%, with more among support personnel (64.3%). Of 46 nonsuicide trauma fatalities, most died of blast injury (67.4%) followed by gunshot wound (26.1%) and multiple/blunt force injury (6.5%). The leading mechanism of death was catastrophic tissue destruction (82.6%). Most had nonsurvivable injuries (82.6%) and nonpreventable deaths (93.5%). CONCLUSION: Operation New Dawn fatalities were exclusively conventional forces divided between combatants and support personnel, the former succumbing more to battle injury and the latter to disease and nonbattle injury including self-inflicted injury. For nonsuicide trauma fatalities, none died from a survivable injury, and 17.4% died from potentially survivable injuries. Opportunities for improvement included providing earlier blood products and surgery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, level V and epidemiological, level IV.

Autopsy-Determined Atherosclerosis in Elite US Military Special Operations Forces.

BACKGROUND: Autopsy studies of trauma fatalities have provided evidence for the pervasiveness of atherosclerosis in young and middle-aged adults. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of atherosclerosis in elite US military forces. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of all US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) fatalities from 2001 to 2020 who died from battle injuries. Autopsies were evaluated from Afghanistan- and Iraq-centric combat operations for evidence of coronary and/or aortic atherosclerosis and categorized as minimal (fatty streaking only), moderate (10-49% narrowing of ≥1 vessel), and severe (≥50% narrowing of ≥1 vessel). Prevalence of atherosclerosis was determined for the total population and by subgroup characteristics of age, sex, race/ethnicity, combat operation, service command, occupation, rank, cause of death, manner of death, and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: From the total of 388 USSOCOM battle injury fatalities, 356 were included in the analysis. The mean age was 31 years (range, 19-57 years), and 98.6% were male. The overall prevalence of coronary and/or aortic atherosclerosis was 17.4%. The prevalence of coronary atherosclerosis alone was 13.8%. Coronary atherosclerosis was categorized as minimal in 1.1%, moderate in 7.6%, and severe in 5.1%. Of those with atherosclerosis, 24.2% were <30 years old, 88.7% were from enlisted ranks, and 95.2% had combatant occupations. When BMI could be calculated, 73.5% of fatalities with atherosclerosis had a BMI =25. CONCLUSIONS: Autopsy-determined atherosclerosis is prevalent in elite US military Special Operations Forces despite young age and positive lifestyle benefits of service in an elite military unit.

Navigating the perils and pitfalls of pediatric forensic postmortem imaging in the United States.

Postmortem CT is widely used in the general adult and military populations. It is used extensively in pediatric death investigations in Europe and Asia, but distinctive challenges are encountered when launching a postmortem imaging program in the United States. We describe the issues we have encountered specific to establishing a pediatric postmortem imaging service in this country and propose potential solutions.

United States Special Operations Command fatality study of subcommands, units, and trends.

BACKGROUND: Death from injury occurs predominantly in prehospital settings. Injury prevention and prehospital care of military forces is the responsibility of combatant commanders. Medical examiner and trauma systems should routinely study fatalities and inform commanders of mortality trends. METHODS: Data reported on US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) fatalities who died while performing duties from September 11, 2001, to September 10, 2018, were reevaluated to compare subcommands, units, and trends. Injury was assessed by mechanism, severity, operational posture, and survivability. Death was assessed by manner, cause, classification, mechanism, and preventability. RESULTS: Of 614 USSOCOM fatalities (median age, 30 years; male, 98.5%), 67.6% occurred in the Army command, of which 49.2% occurred in the Special Forces command. Battle injury accounted for 60.1% of USSOCOM fatalities. Most battle-injured fatalities in each subcommand had nonsurvivable injuries and nonpreventable deaths. For each subcommand except Marine Corps, fatalities with nonsurvivable injuries sustained injuries primarily while mounted. By subcommand, the primary cause of death for fatalities with nonsurvivable injuries was blast for Army (57.6%), multiple/blunt force for Navy (60.0%), gunshot wound for Air Force (55.6%), and split between blast (50.0%) and gunshot wound (50.0%) for Marine Corps. For each subcommand except Air Force, fatalities with potentially survivable-survivable injuries sustained injuries primarily while dismounted, and the mechanism of death was primarily hemorrhage plus other mechanism or hemorrhage alone. Hemorrhage only mechanism of death was surpassed over time by complex multimechanism death. Potential for injury survivability and death preventability was greatest during early and later years of conflict. CONCLUSION: Organizational differences in mortality characteristics and trends were identified from which commanders can refine efforts to prevent and treat injury and improve survival. Fatality analyses inform operational risk matrices and advance casualty prevention and response efforts. Prevention, assessment, and treatment strategies must evolve to reduce death from hemorrhage plus coexisting mechanisms. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Performance Improvement and Epidemiological, level IV.

Mortality review of US Special Operations Command battle-injured fatalities.

BACKGROUND: Comprehensive analyses of battle-injured fatalities, incorporating a multidisciplinary process with a standardized lexicon, is necessary to elucidate opportunities for improvement (OFIs) to increase survivability. METHODS: A mortality review was conducted on United States Special Operations Command battle-injured fatalities who died from September 11, 2001, to September 10, 2018. Fatalities were analyzed by demographics, operational posture, mechanism of injury, cause of death, mechanism of death (MOD), classification of death, and injury severity. Injury survivability was determined by a subject matter expert panel and compared with injury patterns among Department of Defense Trauma Registry survivors. Death preventability and OFI were determined for fatalities with potentially survivable or survivable (PS-S) injuries using tactical data and documented medical interventions. RESULTS: Of 369 United States Special Operations Command battle-injured fatalities (median age, 29 years; male, 98.6%), most were killed in action (89.4%) and more than half died from injuries sustained during mounted operations (52.3%). The cause of death was blast injury (45.0%), gunshot wound (39.8%), and multiple/blunt force injury (15.2%). The leading MOD was catastrophic tissue destruction (73.7%). Most fatalities sustained nonsurvivable injuries (74.3%). For fatalities with PS-S injuries, most had hemorrhage as a component of MOD (88.4%); however, the MOD was multifactorial in the majority of these fatalities (58.9%). Only 5.4% of all fatalities and 21.1% of fatalities with PS-S injuries had comparable injury patterns among survivors. Accounting for tactical situation, a minority of deaths were potentially preventable (5.7%) and a few preventable (1.1%). Time to surgery (93.7%) and prehospital blood transfusion (89.5%) were the leading OFI for PS-S fatalities. Most fatalities with PS-S injuries requiring blood (83.5%) also had an additional prehospital OFI. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive mortality reviews of battlefield fatalities can identify OFI in combat casualty care and prevention. Standardized lexicon is essential for translation to civilian trauma systems. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiological, level IV.

Pediatric postmortem computed tomography: initial experience at a children's hospital in the United States.

Postmortem CT might provide valuable information in determining the cause of death and understanding disease processes, particularly when combined with traditional autopsy. Pediatric applications of postmortem imaging represent a new and rapidly growing field. We describe our experience in establishing a pediatric postmortem CT program and present a discussion of the distinct challenges in developing this type of program in the United States of America, where forensic practice varies from other countries. We give a brief overview of recent literature along with the common imaging findings on postmortem CT that can simulate antemortem pathology.

Beyond the Forensic Pathology Investigation: Improving Warfighter Survivability.

The Armed Forces Medical Examiner System (AFMES) conducts forensic pathology investigations in accordance with Title 10 U.S. Code 1471. Since 2004, the AFMES has incorporated advanced radiologic imaging, such as computed tomography, into its protocol. This incorporation has led to increased fidelity in depicting injuries, efficient localization of foreign bodies, and the ability to accurately document medical therapy - all of which enhance the forensic pathology investigation. As with most jurisdictions, information contained in the forensic pathology investigation is disseminated to family members and criminal investigating authorities. In addition, AFMES also disseminates information regarding the location of resuscitative devices to casualty care providers and trainers, collaborates with trauma physicians and medical providers in regards to evaluating injuries and treatment for the assessment of potential improvements in medical care and survivability, and provides information and subject matter expertise to investigative boards and other organizations that reconstruct fatal events. The overarching goal of these additional collaborations is to enhance the understanding of the nature of traumatic injuries, improve casualty care, and ultimately decrease morbidity while improving survivability.

Intraosseous Vascular Access in Radiology: Review of Clinical Status.

OBJECTIVE: Paramedics and hospital-based providers occasionally need to place intraosseous devices to obtain vascular access in critically ill patients. Diagnostic radiologists must be prepared for the emergent administration of iodinated contrast media via the intraosseous route, and interventional radiologists should be familiar with the potential clinical uses of such access. CONCLUSION: We present a protocol for the administration of iodinated contrast media through the intraosseous route. We also highlight the clinical and radiologic aspects of intraosseous access.

Popliteal cysts in children: another look.

This retrospective review of 46 popliteal cysts seen in 44 patients at a pediatric orthopedic referral center clarifies the presenting symptomatology, associated conditions, and likely duration of a popliteal cyst, and the need for intervention. The patients were followed up for more than 1 year. Thirty-six of the 46 cysts with duration data showed no resolution of the popliteal cyst during the period of observation (average, 32.1 months). The 10 cysts that showed clinical resolution were present for an average of 16.9 months. The benign course of action for virtually all patients obviated the need for intervention and supports the adequacy of only clinical examination, with no need for recurrent sonography.

Sonographic Assessment of Hip Swaddling Techniques in Infants With and Without DDH.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this single-examination pilot study was to confirm the ability to perform hip sonography while swaddled and to ascertain whether the various swaddling techniques influenced hip position and dynamics. METHODS: Dynamic sonography was used to evaluate 30 infants in both swaddled and unswaddled positions who were being seen in clinic for suspected or documented developmental dysplasia of the hip. A "treatment group" of 16 infants (32 hips) treated in a Pavlik harness and a "nontreatment group" of 14 untreated infants (28 hips) were studied.Criteria for comparing sonographic results between swaddled and unswaddled hip positions included femoral head position, instability, and range-of-motion restriction. RESULTS: Tight swaddling with a blanket was applied in 11 "nontreatment group" cases (20 hips; in 2 cases, only 1 hip studied) and produced limited flexion and abduction. One unstable left hip dislocated when tightly swaddled. Safe swaddling technique in 12 cases (24 hips) showed no limitation of flexion and abduction of the legs and no change in stability by sonography. Commercial swaddling products appeared to mildly restrict leg motion in 14 hips, but there was no change in hip position in the "nontreatment group." However, the commercial swaddling products changed the hip position in 3 Pavlik harness cases. CONCLUSIONS: Swaddling techniques that allow a free range of leg motion may not affect hip stability in normal infants or those being treated with Pavlik harness. Swaddling with restricted leg motion increases potential for hip instability. Tight swaddling dislocated 1 unstable hip, and commercial swaddling products judged to apply only mild restriction of leg motion negatively impacted 3 cases being treated for developmental dysplasia of the hip with Pavlik harness. On the basis of this pilot study, we advise caution when swaddling infants, especially with techniques that restrict leg motion. Further study of the long-term effects of swaddling is warranted. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Needle thoracentesis decompression: observations from postmortem computed tomography and autopsy.

BACKGROUND: Needle thoracentesis decompression (NTD) is a recommended emergency treatment for tension pneumothorax. Current doctrine recognizes two suitable sites: the second intercostal space in the midclavicular line and the fourth or fifth intercostal space in the anterior axillary line. METHODS: A review was conducted of postmortem computed tomography and autopsy results in 16 cases where NTD was performed as an emergency procedure. RESULTS: In 16 cases with 23 attempted procedures, the outcome was confirmed in 17 attempts. In 7 placements, the catheter was in the pleural cavity; in 7 placements, the catheter never entered the pleural cavity; and in 3 placements, cavity penetration was verified at autopsy even though the catheter was no longer in the cavity. Success was noted in 6 of 13 anterior attempts and 4 of 4 lateral attempts, for an overall success rate of 59% (10 of 17). In the remaining 6 attempted procedures, a catheter was noted in the soft tissue on imaging; however, presence or absence of pleural cavity penetration was equivocal. All placements were attempted in the combat environment; no information is available about specifically where or by whom. CONCLUSION: NTD via a lateral approach was more successful than that via an anterior approach, although it was used in fewer cases. This supports the revision of the Tactical Combat Casualty Care Guidelines specifying the lateral approach as an alternative to an anterior approach.

Tragedy into drama: an american history of tourniquet use in the current war.

BACKGROUND: Although the scientific results of recent tourniquet advances in first aid are well recorded, the process by which tourniquet use advances were made is not. The purpose of the present report is to distill historical aspects of this tourniquet story during the current wars in Afghanistan and Iraq to aid scientists, leaders, and clinicians in the process of development of future improvements in first aid. METHODS: The process of how developments of this tourniquet story happened recently is detailed chronologically and thematically in a ?who did what, when, where, why, and how? way. RESULTS: Initially in these wars, tourniquets were used rarely or were used as a means of last resort. Such delay in tourniquet use was often lethal; subsequently, use was improved incrementally over time by many people at several organizations. Three sequential keys to success were (1) unlocking the impasse of enacting doctrinal ideas already approved, (2) reaching a critical density of both tourniquets and trained users on the battlefield, and (3) capturing their experience with tourniquets. Other keys included translating needs among stakeholders (such as casualties, combat medics, providers, trainers, and decision-makers) and problem-solving logistic snags and other issues. Eventually, refined care was shown to improve survival rates. From all medical interventions evidenced in the current wars, the tourniquet broke rank and moved to the forefront as the prehospital medical breakthrough of the war. CONCLUSION: The recorded process of how tourniquet developments in prehospital care occurred may be used as a reference for parallel efforts in first aid such as attempts to improve care for airway and breathing problems.

Feedback to the field: an assessment of sternal intraosseous (IO) infusion.

Intraosseous vascular infusion (IO) is a recognized alternative to peripheral intravenous infusion when access is inadequate. The sternum and proximal tibia are the preferred sites. A review of 98 cases at autopsy revealed successful sternal IO placement in 78 cases (80%). Assuming a worst case scenario for placement (pin mark and no tip in bone [17 cases] and tip present and not in the sternum [3 cases]), attempts were unsuccessful in 20 cases (20%). We draw no specific conclusions regarding sternal IO use, but hope that personnel placing these devices and those providing medical training can use the information.

Multidetector computed tomography findings in deaths with severe burns.

This study compared autopsy with postmortem multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) findings in charred remains. Seventeen consecutive male subjects (mean age, 29.4 years) who perished in a fire-related event resulting in charred remains underwent total body MDCT immediately prior to routine autopsy that included serum carboxyhemoglobin measurement. MDCT showed all thermal tissue changes (skin and subcutaneous fat loss, skeletal muscle retraction, pugilistic attitude, cortical fractures, bone and organ destruction, thermal epidural hematoma, and thermal amputation) and established all fracture patterns that were lethal, but autopsy added the fire as a contributory cause of death when there was carboxyhemoglobin elevation. MDCT had limited value in determination of lethal vascular and visceral injuries. MDCT is an effective complement to autopsy in the setting of charred remains and may serve to augment a limited autopsy. This may be particularly useful in mass casualty scenarios.