Second Trimester Spontaneous Fundal Rupture of Unscarred Bicornuate Uterus in Primipara: A Case Report and Literature Review; Jigjiga University Sheik Hassen Yabare Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Jigjiga, Ethiopia.

Background: Primary rupture of an unscarred uterus is rare. Spontaneous rupture of an unscarred bicornuate uterus is a life-threatening obstetric emergency with high morbidity and mortality in the mother and fetus; however, it most commonly occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy. Case: A 20-year-old primigravid woman at 22 weeks of gestation, with no prior surgery, presented with severe abdominal pain, anemia, and hemodynamic instability. With a preoperative diagnosis of uterine rupture, she was transfused with three units of cross-matched whole blood and underwent emergency laparotomy. Intraoperative findings showed a ruptured bicornuate uterus and a dead fetus in the abdomen with huge hemoperitoneum. Postoperative recovery was smooth, and the patient was discharged after being counselled on family planning and subsequent pregnancy. Conclusion: A bicornuate uterus may be an independent risk factor for uterine rupture, which can occur in primigravid women at any stage of pregnancy. Each obstetrician should have a high index of suspicion for a rare condition like ruptured bicornuate uterus, especially for a pregnant woman presenting with acute abdominal pain and hemodynamic instability. Early ultrasonography plays a key role in the evaluation, follow-up, and management of these patients.

Surgical System Efficiency and Operative Productivity in Public and Private Health Facilities in Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Global and local health organizations track surgical system efficiency to improve surgical system performance using various efficiency metrics, such as operating room (OR) output, surgical incision start time (SIST), turnover time (TOT), cancellation rate among elective surgeries, and in-hospital surgery wait time. We evaluated the surgical system efficiency and factors affecting the efficiency in health facilities across Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design with retrospective record review was used to evaluate the surgical system efficiency in 163 public and private health facilities in Ethiopia from December 2020 to June 2021. Experienced, trained surgical clinicians abstracted efficiency data from service registers and patient charts using a pretested tool. A bivariable and multivariable regression analysis was conducted. RESULTS: In the study facilities, 84.11% of the operating tables were functional, and 68,596 major surgeries were performed. The aggregate OR output in both public and private health facilities was 2 surgeries per day per OR table. Operating productivity was shown to be affected by first-case SIST (P=.004). However, of the total 881 surgery incision times audited, 19.86% of the first-of-the-day elective surgeries started after 10:01 am. The SIST was strongly associated with an in-hospital wait time for surgery (P=.016). The elective surgery cancellation rate was 5.2%, and aggregate mean TOT was 50.25 minutes. The mean in-hospital surgery wait time was 45.40 hours, longer than the national cutoff for wait time. In a bivariable analysis, the independent variables that demonstrated association operating room productivity were then inputted into a multivariable regression analysis model. However, none of the predictor/independent variables showed significance in the multivariable regression analysis model. CONCLUSION: The volume of surgery and overall OR productivity in Ethiopia is low. This calls for concerted action to optimize OR efficiency and improve access to timely and safe surgical care in Ethiopia and other LMICs.

Genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the central, eastern and southeastern Ethiopia.

Introduction: The population structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in Ethiopia is diverse but dominated by Euro-American (Lineage 4) and East-African-Indian (Lineage 3) lineages. The objective of this study was to describe the genetic diversity of MTBC isolates in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Ethiopia. Methods: A total of 223 MTBC culture isolates obtained from patients referred to Adama and Harar TB reference laboratories were spoligotyped. Demographic and clinical characteristics were collected. Results: Six major lineages: Euro-American (Lineage 4), East-African-Indian (Lineage 3), East Asian (Lineage 2), Indo-Oceanic (Lineage 1), Mycobacterium africanum (Lineage 5 and Lineage 6) and Ethiopian (Lineage 7) were identified. The majority (94.6 %) of the isolates were Euro-American and East-African-Indian, with proportions of 75.3 % and 19.3 %, respectively. Overall, 77 different spoligotype patterns were identified of which 42 were registered in the SITVIT2 database. Of these, 27 spoligotypes were unique, while 15 were clustered with 2-49 isolates. SIT149/T3_ETH (n = 49), SIT53/T1 (n = 33), SIT21/CAS1_Kili (n = 24) and SIT41/Turkey (n = 11) were the dominant spoligotypes. A rare Beijing spoligotype pattern, SIT541, has also been identified in Eastern Ethiopia. The overall clustering rate of sub-lineages with known SIT was 71.3 %. Age group (25-34) was significantly associated with clustering. Conclusion: We found a heterogeneous population structure of MTBC dominated by T and CAS families, and the Euro-American lineage. The identification of the Beijing strain, particularly the rare SIT541 spoligotype in Eastern Ethiopia, warrants a heightened surveillance plan, as little is known about this genotype. A large-scale investigation utilizing a tool with superior discriminatory power, such as whole genome sequencing, is necessary to gain a thorough understanding of the genetic diversity of MTBC in the nation, which would help direct the overall control efforts.

Integrated Prevalence Assessment of Wuchereria bancrofti and Onchocerca volvulus in Three Co-Endemic Districts of Gambella Region, Ethiopia.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) and onchocerciasis (OV) are among the neglected tropical diseases (NTD) targeted for elimination in Ethiopia. We used a transmission assessment survey (TAS-1) to evaluate the serological status of OV in three co-endemic districts in Gambella simultaneously. During May and June 2019, blood samples were collected from 6- to 7-year-old children who were randomly selected through standard community-based TAS methodology. Children were tested for both circulating filarial antigen (CFA) for LF via filariasis test strip and for Onchocerca volvulus 16 (Ov16) antibody for OV via laboratory-based ELISA. A total of 3,377 children from 150 villages in the three districts were tested; 1,823 (54.0%) were male. All three districts had CFA results below the critical threshold for stopping LF mass drug administration (MDA). In contrast, 40 children (1.2%) were positive for Ov16 antibody, well above the WHO's OV stop MDA threshold of 0.1%. The integrated assessment indicated two programmatic decisions: stop MDA for LF and continue MDA for OV. Accordingly, albendazole MDA was discontinued in the districts but ivermectin MDA continued. This integrated assessment showed that a random sample for TAS can give important information about OV transmission status in co-endemic areas.

Surgical Capacity in Public and Private Health Facilities After a Five-Year Strategic Plan Implementation in Ethiopia: A Cross Sectional Study.

Background: Surgical capacity is critical for ensuring optimum access to safe, affordable, and timely emergency and essential surgical care (EESC) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) like Ethiopia. A five-year strategic plan has been implemented during 2016-2020 in Ethiopia to improve surgical capacity. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the impact of the five-year strategy in surgical capacity in the country. Methods: A cross sectional survey was conducted in 172 health care facilities in Ethiopia from December 30, 2020, to June 10, 2021. Descriptive statistical analysis was done using STATA statistical software Version 15. Findings: A total of 2,312 surgical workforces were available and, the surgical workforce to population ratio ranged from 1.13:100,000 for public specialized hospitals to 10.8:100,000 for health centre operation room (OR) blocks. Surgical bed to population ratio was 0.03:1000 population, and the average numbers of OR tables per facility were 34. Nearly 25% and 10% of OR tables were not functional in public primary hospitals and private hospitals, respectively. The average surgical volume to population ratio was 189:100,000. Conclusions: Following the implementation of surgical care strategy, the surgical workforce density has increased. However, the study revealed that there is still a huge unmet gap in surgical capacity. The improvement in surgical volume is very low compared to the increment in the surgical workforce density. In addition to the investment being made to build surgical capacity, emphasis needs to be put on surgical system design and strengthening surgical system efficiency.

Access to surgical care in Ethiopia: a cross-sectional retrospective data review.

BACKGROUND: Access to emergency and essential surgical care is still unmet and accessibility is disproportionately inequitable in Ethiopia and other low-and middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to assess surgical care access in terms of capability, capacity, and timeliness of care in different levels of health care in Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study with retrospective data review was conducted in 172 health facilities from December 30, 2020 to June 10, 2021. Descriptive statistics such as median with interquartile range and proportion were computed using STATA Version 15 statistical software. RESULTS: Within a 90-day interval of the study period, 69,717 major and minor surgeries, and 33,052 bellwether procedures were performed, and major surgeries accounted for 58% of the surgeries. About 1.6%, 23.56%, 25.34%, and 32.2% of both major and minor, and 3.1%, 12.8%, 27.6%, and 45.3% of bellwether procedures were performed in health center OR blocks, primary, general, and specialized hospitals, respectively. Private hospitals performed 17.33% of major and minor and 11.2% of bellwether procedures for the period. The average pre-admission waiting time for surgical patients in primary, general, and specialized hospitals was 9.68, 37.6, and 35.9 days, respectively, whereas, in private hospitals, the average pre-admission waiting time was 1.42 days. On average, surgical patients traveled 5 Hrs, 11 Hrs, 28.4 Hrs, and 21.3 Hrs to access surgical services in primary, general, specialized, and private hospitals, respectively. The surgical workforce to the population served ratio was 7.5, 1.15, and 1.31/100.000 population in primary, specialized and general hospitals, respectively. CONCLUSION: Most surgical procedures were performed in specialized hospitals, indicating that there is a burden in these health facilities. The pre-admission waiting time for surgical patients was long in higher-level public hospitals. Surgical patients traveled a long distance to access surgical service in higher level hospitals. The ratio of surgical workforce per 100,000 population served was low in all levels of public health facilities in general, and in higher level hospitals in particular. Efforts should therefore be made to strengthen all levels of the health system and improve surgical care access in terms of capacity, capability, and timeliness in the country.

Compliance with the World Health Organization's surgical safety checklist and related postoperative outcomes: a nationwide survey among 172 health facilities in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ministry of Health (MOH) of Ethiopia adopted World Health Organization's evidence-proven surgical safety checklist (SSC) to reduce the occurrence of surgical complications, i.e., death, disability and prolong hospitalization. MOH commissioned this evaluation to learn about SSC completeness and compliance, and its effect on magnitude of surgical complications. METHODS: Health institution-based cross-sectional study with retrospective surgical chart audit was used to evaluate SSC utilization in 172 public and private health facilities in Ethiopia, December 2020-May 2021. A total of 1720 major emergency and elective surgeries in 172 (140 public and 32 private) facilities were recruited for chart review by an experienced team of surgical clinicians. A pre-tested tool was used to abstract data from patient charts and national database. Analyzed descriptive, univariable and bivariable data using Stata version-15 statistical software. RESULTS: In 172 public and private health facilities across Ethiopia, 1603 of 1720 (93.2%) patient charts were audited; representations of public and private facilities were 81.4% (n = 140) and 18.6% (n = 32), respectively. Of surgeries that utilized SSC (67.6%, 1083 of 1603), the proportion of SSC that were filled completely and correctly were 60.8% (659 of 1083). Surgeries compliant to SSC guide achieved a statistically significant reduction in perioperative mortality (P = 0.002) and anesthesia adverse events (P = 0.005), but not in Surgical Site Infection (P = 0.086). Non-compliant surgeries neither utilized SSC nor completed the SSC correctly, 58.9% (944 of 1603). CONCLUSIONS: Surgeries that adhered to the SSC achieved a statistically significant reduction in perioperative complications, including mortality. Disappointingly, a significant number of surgeries (58.9%) failed to adhere to SSC, a missed opportunity for reducing complications.

Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection by age: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectivesThis systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the age-specific proportion of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected persons by year of age. MethodsWe searched PubMed, Embase, medRxiv and Google Scholar on 10 September 2020 and 1 March 2021. We included studies conducted during January to October 2020, prior to routine vaccination against COVID-19. Since we expected the relationship between the asymptomatic proportion and age to be non-linear, multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression (QR decomposition) with a restricted cubic spline was used to model asymptomatic proportions as a function of age. ResultsA total of 38 studies were included in the meta-analysis. In total, 6556 out of 14850 cases were reported as asymptomatic. The overall estimate of the proportion of people who became infected with SARS-CoV-2 and remained asymptomatic throughout infection was 44.1% (6556/14850, 95%CI 43.3%-45.0%). The asymptomatic proportion peaked in adolescents (36.2%, 95%CI 26.0%-46.5%) at 13.5 years, gradually decreased by age and was lowest at 90.5 years of age (8.1%, 95%CI 3.4%-12.7%). ConclusionsGiven the high rates of asymptomatic carriage in adolescents and young adults and their active role in virus transmission in the community, heightened vigilance and public health strategies are needed among these individuals to prevent disease transmission.

Half-time evaluation of a new 4-year Ph.D. program in nursing and midwifery at the University of Gondar, Ethiopia.

A new four-year Ph.D. programme in nursing and midwifery, the first of its kind in Ethiopia, was started in 2018/2019 at the University of Gondar when eight doctoral students in nursing and midwifery entered the program. We who have been involved see this as an appropriate time to evaluate what has been accomplished to date and to look toward future possibilities. Our aim in carrying out such an evaluation and presenting our findings is in part to determine if similar programs might be developed in other similar settings and in part to learn what modifications to the present program might be considered. The key elements of a questionnaire survey with closed and open response alternatives were based on the content, structure and learning outcomes of the home university Ph.D. programme as described in the curriculum. The questionnaire responses captured changes that would be needed to maintain a fully satisfactory programme that blends onsite instruction and online access to faculty resulting in a twenty-first century blended Ph.D. programme. Improved dialogue between the home university faculty and the external supervisors is needed. The programme can provide a career pathway that midwifery and nursing educators can follow in their own country rather than having to leave to study in another country. The findings provide insight into the feasibility of extending similar Ph.D. programmes to other parts of East Africa and with the SDG 5 in mind with an increased focus on women leadership. The justification for this initiative is to meet the need for more nursing and midwifery faculty who can provide quality midwifery and nursing education in East African countries. Retention of these professionals will help to deal with the shortage of healthcare personnel and will provide better care for the general population.

Multivariate analysis for yield and yield-related traits of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) genotypes.

Sesame production under irrigation is limited in Ethiopia because of in availability of high yielding varieties, inadequate and inefficient irrigation schemes, and insignificant awareness of producers. This study, comprising 13 sesame genotypes, was conducted around Humera and Werer during 2018 and 2019 under irrigation. The design was randomized completely block design with three replications and the objectives were to develop high yielding genotypes and identify important agronomic traits. Multivariate statistical methods like Additive Main Effect and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) model, Principal Component Analysis, Cluster and factor analyses were used. The genotypes (6.22%), environments (42.62) and Genotype × Environment Interactions (25.09%) were statistically (p < 0.001) significant for the agronomic traits. The grain yield in each observation varied from 383 kg/ha to 2044 kg/ha and the grand mean yield was 820.19 kg/ha. The highest mean yield was recorded from G12 (948.6 kg/ha) followed by G4 (938.9 kg/ha) while the lowest was recorded from G8 (703.1 kg/ha). G1, G4, G12, G5, G8, G11 and G13 are identified as unstable genotypes while G2, G3, G6, and G9 are stable genotypes. The genotypes were grouped in to four clusters and cluster-II was characterized as the high yielding cluster and it was also associated with grain yield, pods per plant, branches per plant and thousand seed weight. Branches per plant, pods per plant and thousand seed weight may be most determinant and crucial in developing high yielding sesame varieties. This finding recommends that G4 and G6 are desirable genotypes and can be used for irrigation production.

Glycemic Control, Diabetes Complications and Their Determinants Among Ambulatory Diabetes Mellitus Patients in Southwest Ethiopia: A Prospective Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Over the past two decades, the prevalence of diabetes has increased faster in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries. Regardless of the instant growth in the prevalence of diabetes in Ethiopia, up-to-date data regarding glycemic control and related complications of diabetes is inadequate. This study aimed to identify glycemic control and chronic complications and their determinants among ambulatory diabetic patients at Mizan-Tepi University Teaching Hospital (MTUTH). METHODS: We conducted facility-based cross-sectional study from February 25 to March 25, 2019, at Mizan-Tepi University Teaching Hospital. Patients' demographic data, diabetes complications, and treatments were collected using pretested questionnaire and data abstraction format. Data was entered by using Epidata manager 4.0.2.101, and statistical analysis was done by SPSS version 21. Bivariate logistic regression was done to see the association between independent variables and glycemic control and complication. Multivariable logistic regression analyses using backward selection were done to identify the predictors of poor glycemic control and complication at a P-value of <0.05. RESULTS: One hundred ambulatory diabetic patients were included in this study. The mean duration of diabetes and the mean age of the participants were 3.95±5.85 and 46.66±15.53 years, respectively. About 71 (71%) of the studied diabetic patients had uncontrolled fasting blood glucose (FBG) level. More than half of the diabetic patients (59%) developed chronic complications of diabetes. Low medication adherence (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=11.78, 95%CI: 1.09-17.17) and inappropriate doses in the first, second, and third clinic visits (AOR=7.70, 95%CI: 1.79-33.01; AOR=8.09, 95%CI: 1.90-34.33; AOR=4.34, 95%CI: 1.09-17.17), respectively, were independent predictors of uncontrolled FBG. No variable was found to be an independent predictor of chronic diabetic complication on multivariable logistic regression analyses. CONCLUSION: Poor glycemic control and diabetes complications among ambulatory diabetic patients were high. Low medication adherence and inappropriate doses in the first, second, and third clinic visits were independent predictors of poor glycemic control.

The Galabat-Metema cross-border onchocerciasis focus: The first coordinated interruption of onchocerciasis transmission in Africa.

BACKGROUND: Onchocerciasis transmission across international borders is not uncommon, yet a coordinated cross border stops mass drug administration (MDA) decision has not been documented. METHODS/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS: The Galabat-Metema focus involves neighboring districts on the border between Sudan and Ethiopia. Mass drug administration (MDA) was provided once and subsequently twice per year in this focus, with twice-per-year beginning in Ethiopia's Metema subfocus in 2016 and in the Sudan's Galabat subfocus in 2008. Ov16 ELISA-based serosurveys were conducted in 6072 children under 10 years of age in the Metema subfocus in 2014, and 3931 in the Galabat in 2015. Between 2014 and 2016, a total of 27,583 vector Simulium damnosum flies from Metema and 9,148 flies from Galabat were tested by pool screen PCR for Onchocerca volvulus O-150 DNA. Only 8 children were Ov16 seropositive (all in the Metema subfocus); all were negative by skin snip PCR. The upper limit of the 95% confidence interval (UCL) for Ov16 seropositive was <0.1% for the overall focus and 0.14 positive fly heads per 2000 (UCL = 0.39/2000). However, an entomological 'hotspot' was detected on the Wudi Gemzu river in Metema district. The hotspot was confirmed when 4 more positive fly pools were found on repeat testing in 2017 (1.04 L3/2000 flies (UCL = 2.26/2000). Information exchange between the two countries led to stopping MDA in a coordinated fashion in 2018, with the exception of the hotspot at Wudi Gemzu, where MDA with ivermectin was increased to every three months to hasten interruption of transmission. CONCLUSION: Coordinated stop MDA decisions were made by Sudan and Ethiopia based on data satisfying the World Health Organization's criteria for interruption of onchocerciasis transmission. Definitions of entomological 'hotspots' and buffer zones around the focus are proposed.

Dental needle foreign body in the neck: a case report

Foreign body (FB) ingestion is commonly seen in the ear nose and throat (ENT) field, with different presentationsand sequelae. FBs can arrest in the upper aerodigestive tract or continue further down into either the airwaytract to the bronchus or the digestive tract to the intestines. The pathway of an FB depends on the size andshape of the FB and how sharp its edges are. Since the 20th century, the use of disposable stainless-steelneedles in the oral cavity has proven to be an effective and safe method for performing various intraoral procedureslike dental infiltration or a root canal wash. Complications from their use are rare. Generally, dental needlebreakages are caused by patients biting the needle, incorrect injection techniques, or inadequate preventativemeasures. The sudden movement of a patient during a procedure is one of the most common causes of breakage.Occasionally, needles are swallowed during dental procedures such as a root canal. Here, we report a caseof a patient that swallowed a broken needle during a dental procedure. A few days later, the patient presentedwith neck pain, swelling, and a FB sensation. When the patient presented, she claimed that her symptomshad onset after consuming a meal containing duck meat. Initially, the patient was diagnosed as having ingesteda duck bone. However, intraoperatively, the FB was discovered to be an injection needle that had migratedfrom the throat to the neck.

Proportion of medication error reporting and associated factors among nurses: a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: A medication error (ME) is any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm. Voluntary reporting has a principal role in appreciating the extent and impact of medication errors. Thus, exploration of the proportion of medication error reporting and associated factors among nurses is important to inform service providers and program implementers so as to improve the quality of the healthcare services. METHODS: Institution based quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted among 397 nurses from March 6 to May 10, 2015. Stratified sampling followed by simple random sampling technique was used to select the study participants. The data were collected using structured self-administered questionnaire which was adopted from studies conducted in Australia and Jordan. A pilot study was carried out to validate the questionnaire before data collection for this study. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were fitted to identify factors associated with the proportion of medication error reporting among nurses. An adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval was computed to determine the level of significance. RESULT: The proportion of medication error reporting among nurses was found to be 57.4%. Regression analysis showed that sex, marital status, having made a medication error and medication error experience were significantly associated with medication error reporting. CONCLUSION: The proportion of medication error reporting among nurses in this study was found to be higher than other studies.

Demographic and histopathological patterns of neuro-epithelial brain tumors in Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: To review the demographic and pathological pattern of neuro-epithelial brain tumors in a tertiary referral center in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and to compare the results of our study with other national and international studies. METHODS: This is a retrospective chart-review study of all patients with neuro-epithelial brain tumors referred and treated in our center between January 2010 and January 2015. The age, gender, tumor location, and histopathology were recorded. RESULTS: The total number of cases was 149 including 96 adult cases and 53 pediatric cases. 58% of cases were male, and 42% were female. The age group distribution showed 2 peaks; one in the first 5 years of life and the second was in the age range from 26-45 years old. Glioblastoma multiforme was the most common pathological type (32%), followed by medulloblastoma (13.3%). This study showed similar results to a previous study conducted in the Eastern Province in terms of age and gender distribution, but pathologically, the tumors diagnosed in our study were generally of a higher grading. When comparing our results to other international studies in nearby countries (Jordan and Egypt), we found similarities in pathological patterns and age distribution. However, when comparing our results to a western country (USA), we found considerable differences in the age group distribution. CONCLUSION: Neuro-epithelial brain tumors in Saudi Arabia affect younger population according to our study compared to Western countries. These findings are similar to other studies from Middle Eastern countries. In addition, our study showed a significant increase in high grade gliomas in the Eastern Province compared to an old historical study. This increase should be interpreted cautiously due to possible selection errors, changes in pathological grading, and expertise.

Prevalence and Incidence of Smear-Positive Pulmonary Tuberculosis in the Hetosa District of Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State of Central Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The real burden of smear-positive (PTB+) and bacteriologically confirmed tuberculosis (BCTB) in Ethiopia is not known. Thus, the aim of this community-based study was to measure the prevalence and incidence of tuberculosis in the Hetosa District of Oromia Region, Ethiopia. METHODS: First, a population-based cross-sectional survey was conducted on a total of 33,073 individuals aged ≥ 15 years to determine the prevalence of PTB+ and BCTB cases. Then, in order to determine the incidence, a prospective follow-up was carried out on 32,800 individuals found to be either free from symptoms suggestive of TB (SSTB) during the baseline survey or had symptoms suggestive of TB but yielded negative bacteriological examination results. We identified 1,041 presumptive TB cases at the baseline survey, and 1,468 in the follow-up study. Each participants with cough of more than two weeks were provided spot and morning sputum samples for acid-fast bacilli sputum microscopy and culture. RESULTS: At the baseline survey, 43 BCTB cases were identified. Thirty six of these were both smear- and culture-positive while seven were only culture-positive. In the follow-up study, however, 76 BCTB cases were diagnosed and 70 of these were found to be both smear- and culture-positive while six were culture-positive only. The adjusted prevalence of PTB+ and BCTB in the study area was 109 and 132/100,000 persons, respectively. Moreover, the incidences of PTB+ and BCTB were 214 and 232/100,000 persons per year (py), respectively. The ratio of the passive to active case finding was 1:0.96 (45/43). For every TB case identified through the existing passive case diagnosis, there was an almost equal number (0.96) of undiagnosed infectious TB cases in the community. A family history of TB contact was independently associated with a high risk of TB (TB prevalence, AOR, 13; 95% CI: 6.55-15.33) and (TB incidence, aIRR 4.11, 95% CI: 2.18-7.77). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The prevalence and incidence of smear-positive and bacteriologically confirmed TB cases were high in the study area. For every case of smear-positive TB receiving treatment, there was an almost equal (0.96) number of undetected infectious bacteriologically confirmed TB case in the community. The high proportion of undetected infectious TB cases in the community could possibly be due to the sub-optimal performance of Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (DOTS) in detecting 70% of infectious TB cases, as well as attaining a cure rate of 85% in the study area. Family history of TB contact has substantaially increased the risk of developing the disease, and there is a need to improve ways of identifying TB cases and intensify mechanisms of tracing contacts among household members of PTB+ cases.