Physicochemical, biological, functional and toxicological characterization of the European follow-on glatiramer acetate product as compared with Copaxone.

For more than 20 years, Copaxone (glatiramer acetate, Teva), a non-biological complex drug, has been a safe and effective treatment option for multiple sclerosis. In 2016, a follow-on glatiramer acetate product (FOGA, Synthon) was approved in the EU. Traditional bulk-based methods and high-resolution assays were employed to evaluate the physicochemical, functional, and bio-recognition attributes, as well as the in vivo toxicity profile of the active substances in Copaxone and Synthon EU FOGA lots. These tests included quality control tests applied routinely in release of Copaxone lots, as well as additional characterization assays, gene expression studies and a rat toxicity study. Even though the Synthon FOGA was designed to copy and compete with Copaxone, the active substances were found to be similar in only 7 of the tested 14 (50%) methods (similar is defined as within approved specifications or within the inherent microheterogeneity range of tested Copaxone batches, or not showing statistically significant differences). With additional methods applied, consistent compositional differences in attributes of surface charge distribution, molecular size, and spatial arrangement were observed. These marked differences were concordantly observed with higher biological activity of some of the Synthon EU FOGA lots compared with Copaxone lots, including potency and cytotoxicity activities as well as gene expression of pathways that regulate apoptosis, IL-2, and inflammation signaling. These observations raise concerns for immunogenicity differences, particularly in (repeated) substitution settings. Another orthogonal finding demonstrated increased frequency of injection-site local toxicity observations for the Synthon EU FOGA in an in vivo daily dosing rat study, thus warranting further qualification of the link between compositional and functional differences in immunogenicity, and potential impact on long-term efficacy and safety.

Myosin-I nomenclature.

We suggest that the vertebrate myosin-I field adopt a common nomenclature system based on the names adopted by the Human Genome Organization (HUGO). At present, the myosin-I nomenclature is very confusing; not only are several systems in use, but several different genes have been given the same name. Despite their faults, we believe that the names adopted by the HUGO nomenclature group for genome annotation are the best compromise, and we recommend universal adoption.

Hereditary familial vestibular degenerative diseases.

Identification of genes involved in hereditary vestibular disease is growing at a remarkable pace. Mutant mouse technology can be an important tool for understanding the biological mechanism of human vestibular diseases.

MYO1F as a candidate gene for nonsyndromic deafness, DFNB15.

BACKGROUND: Earlier studies have mapped the autosomal recessive nonsyndromic deafness locus, DFNB15, to chromosomes 3q21.3-q25.2 and 19p13.3-13.1, identifying one of these chromosomal regions (or possibly both) as the site of a deafness-causing gene. Mutations in unconventional myosins cause deafness in mice and humans. One unconventional myosin, myosin 1F (MYO1F), is expressed in the cochlea and maps to chromosome 19p13.3-13.2. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate MYO1F as a candidate gene for deafness at the DFNB15 locus by determining its genomic structure and screening each exon for deafness-causing mutations to identify possible allele variants of MYO1F segregating in the DFNB15 family. METHODS: We used radiation hybrid mapping to localize MYO1F on chromosome arm 19p. We next determined its genomic structure using multiple long-range polymerase chain reaction experiments. Using these data, we completed mutation screening using single-stranded conformational polymorphism analysis and direct sequencing of affected and nonaffected persons in the original DFNB15 family. RESULTS: Radiation hybrid mapping placed MYO1F in the DFNB15 interval, establishing it as a positional candidate gene. Its genomic structure consists of 24 coding exons. No mutations or genomic rearrangements were found in the original DFNB15 family, making it unlikely that MYO1F is the disease-causing gene in this kindred. CONCLUSIONS: Although we did not find MYO1F allele variants in one family with autosomal recessive nonsyndromic hearing loss, the gene remains an excellent candidate for hereditary hearing impairment. Given its wide tissue expression, MYO1F might cause syndromic deafness.

Myosin-VIIb, a novel unconventional myosin, is a constituent of microvilli in transporting epithelia.

Mouse myosin-VIIb, a novel unconventional myosin, was cloned from the inner ear and kidney. The human myosin-VIIb (HGMW-approved symbol MYO7B) sequence and exon structure were then deduced from a human BAC clone. The mouse gene was mapped to chromosome 18, approximately 0.5 cM proximal to D18Mit12. The human gene location at 2q21.1 was deduced from the map location of the BAC and confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Myosin-VIIb has a conserved myosin head domain, five IQ domains, two MyTH4 domains coupled to two FERM domains, and an SH3 domain. A phylogenetic analysis based on the MyTH4 domains suggests that the coupled MyTH and FERM domains were duplicated in myosin evolution before separation into different classes. Myosin-VIIb is expressed primarily in kidney and intestine, as shown by Northern and immunoblot analyses. An antibody to myosin-VIIb labeled proximal tubule cells of the kidney and enterocytes of the intestine, specifically the distal tips of apical microvilli on these transporting epithelial cells.

Mechanisms of motor protein reversal.

Members of the kinesin superfamily of microtubule-based motors and the myosin superfamily of actin-based motors that move 'backwards' have been identified. As the core catalytic domains of myosins and kinesins are similar in structure, this raises the intriguing questions of how direction reversal is accomplished and whether kinesins and myosins share mechanisms for switching their motors into reverse.

Origin of vestibular dysfunction in Usher syndrome type 1B.

It is still debated to what extent the vestibular deficits in Usher patients are due to either central vestibulocerebellar or peripheral vestibular problems. Here, we determined the origin of the vestibular symptoms in Usher 1B patients by subjecting them to compensatory eye movement tests and by investigating the shaker-1 mouse model, which is known to have the same mutation in the myosin-VIIa gene as Usher 1B patients. We show that myosin-VIIa is not expressed in the human or mouse cerebellum and that the vestibulocerebellum of both Usher 1B patients and shaker-1 mice is functionally intact in that the gain and phase values of their optokinetic reflex are normal. In addition, Usher 1B patients and shaker-1 mice do not show an angular vestibuloocular reflex even though eye movement responses evoked by electrical stimulation of the vestibular nerve appear intact. Finally, we show histological abnormalities in the vestibular hair cells of shaker-1 mice at the ultrastructural level, while the distribution of the primary vestibular afferents and the vestibular brainstem circuitries are unaffected. We conclude that the vestibular dysfunction of Usher 1B patients and shaker-1 mice is peripheral in origin.

Novel myosin VI isoform is abundantly expressed in retina.

Several forms of sensory deficit have been associated with unconventional myosin defects in humans and other animals. Normal hearing in mammals has been shown to require functional myosin VI (Avraham et al., 1995) and myosin VIIA (Gibson et al., 1995; Liu et al., 1997), and the combined blindness and deafness of Usher syndrome type IB has been shown to be produced by specific defects in myosin VIIA (Weil et al., 1997). Here we report the cloning and characterization of two distinct myosin VI isoforms (FMVIA and FMVIB) initially identified in a degenerate PCR screen of retinal cDNA from the striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Open reading frames for FMVIA and FMVIB encode predicted proteins of 1304 and 1270 amino acids respectively, which are 83% identical at the amino acid level. Both fish isoforms are likewise approximately 83-86% identical to mammalian class VI myosins (Hasson and Mooseker, 1994). Northern blot analysis revealed that FMVIA mRNA is broadly expressed and most abundant in kidney, a pattern similar to that previously reported for mammalian myosin VI. FMVIB expression is dramatically more abundant in retina than in any other tissue examined. Antibodies directed against pig myosin VI (Hasson and Mooseker, 1994) detect a doublet at approximately 150 kDa in bass retina and RPE. Since both fish VIA and VIB isoforms share high sequence identity with pig myosin VI within the domain used for antibody production, it seems likely that this antibody crossreacts with both FMVIA and FMVIB. Immunocytochemistry with this same affinity-purified rabbit anti-myosin VI antibody shows that myosin VI isoforms are primarily localized in photoreceptors, horizontal cells and Müller cells in both fish and primate retinas. This report is the first demonstration that two myosin VI genes are expressed in the same organism and the same cell type (RPE). The relatively high abundance of FMVIB expression in retina suggests that it may play an important role in retinal motility events.

Molecular motors: sensing a function for myosin-VIIa.

Mutations affecting myosin-VIIa are known to cause deafness and blindness in human Usher syndrome. Mutation of the Dictyostelium myosin-VII gene has now revealed a role for this unconventional myosin in phagocytic events, providing a possible clue to the role of mammalian myosin-VIIa in the inner ear and retina.

Myosin VI is an actin-based motor that moves backwards.

Myosins and kinesins are molecular motors that hydrolyse ATP to track along actin filaments and microtubules, respectively. Although the kinesin family includes motors that move towards either the plus or minus ends of microtubules, all characterized myosin motors move towards the barbed (+) end of actin filaments. Crystal structures of myosin II (refs 3-6) have shown that small movements within the myosin motor core are transmitted through the 'converter domain' to a 'lever arm' consisting of a light-chain-binding helix and associated light chains. The lever arm further amplifies the motions of the converter domain into large directed movements. Here we report that myosin VI, an unconventional myosin, moves towards the pointed (-) end of actin. We visualized the myosin VI construct bound to actin using cryo-electron microscopy and image analysis, and found that an ADP-mediated conformational change in the domain distal to the motor, a structure likely to be the effective lever arm, is in the opposite direction to that observed for other myosins. Thus, it appears that myosin VI achieves reverse-direction movement by rotating its lever arm in the opposite direction to conventional myosin lever arm movement.

The dynamic response of human subjects while seated in car seats.

A pendulum impact method was used to establish the dynamic response of the seated subject. Threaded K wires were placed in the L3 spinous process. The gain and phase angle between the platform and the vertebra were established. The response of the subject was observed while seated on a platform and a variety of other seats. The seats were found to be very important in the attenuation of the impulse, leading to a higher transmissibility. Clinical Relevance Skeletal impact through the lower extremity is quite common in many occupations. The importance of posture and seat design in attenuation of impulses has been established.

Requirement for Brn-3c in maturation and survival, but not in fate determination of inner ear hair cells.

Mutations in the POU domain gene Brn-3c causes hearing impairment in both the human and mouse as a result of inner ear hair cell loss. We show here that during murine embryogenesis, Brn-3c is expressed in postmitotic cells committed to hair cell phenotype but not in mitotic progenitors in the inner ear sensory epithelium. In developing auditory and vestibular sensory epithelia of Brn-3c-/- mice, hair cells are found to be generated and undergo initial differentiation as indicated by their morphology, laminar position and expression of hair cell markers, including myosins VI and VIIa, calretinin and parvalbumin. However, a small number of hair cells are anomalously retained in the supporting cell layer in the vestibular sensory epithelia. Furthermore, the initially differentiated hair cells fail to form stereociliary bundles and degenerate by apoptosis in the Brn-3c-/- mice. These data indicate a crucial role for Brn-3c in maturation, survival and migration of hair cells, but not in proliferation or commitment of hair cell progenitors.

Nucleolar localization of mouse mammary tumor virus proteins in T-cell lymphomas.

To characterize novel proteins expressed in lymphoma cells, monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were raised against variant S49 mouse lymphoma cells. Immunoperoxidase analysis with a specific MAb, named M-66, revealed nuclear localization with prominent staining in the nucleoli of both tumorigenic (T-63) cells and nontumorigenic, immunogenic (T-25-Adh) cells. Weak signals were also observed in the cytoplasm and plasma membrane of both cells. Western blot analysis with M-66 antibody revealed a 14-kDa protein in nuclear extracts of both T-25-Adh and T-63 cells. An additional nuclear 21-kDa protein was evident only in T-63 cells. M-66 identified several clones from a T-25-Adh cDNA expression library. These clones demonstrated extensive homology (approximately 95% identity throughout their length) to the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) env and LTR regions. Extensive amino acid sequence homology (approximately 90% identity) between the clones and the env protein was observed. M-66 identified the 14-kDa protein in another MMTV bearing T-cell lymphoma, EL-4. Immunoperoxidase analysis of EL-4 cells with M-66 also revealed prominent nucleolar staining. MMTV-negative cells and MMTV-positive cells of nonlymphocytic origin were devoid of both 14- and 21-kDa proteins. Moreover, an anti-MMTV gp52 (env) antibody precipitated the 21-kDa protein in T-63 cells. We thus suggest that MMTV bearing T-cell lymphomas express nucleolar proteins translated from the env region of MMTV.

Characterization of unconventional MYO6, the human homologue of the gene responsible for deafness in Snell's waltzer mice.

Deafness is the most common form of sensory impairment in humans. Mutations in unconventional myosins have been found to cause deafness in humans and mice. The mouse recessive deafness mutation, Snell's waltzer, contains an intragenic deletion in an unconventional myosin, myosin VI (locus designation, Myo6). The requirement for Myo6 for proper hearing in mice makes this gene an excellent candidate for a human deafness disorder. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the human unconventional myosin VI (locus designation, MYO6) cDNA. The MYO6 gene maps to human chromosome 6q13. The isolation of the human gene makes it now possible to determine if mutations in MYO6 contribute to the pathogenesis of deafness in the human population.

Unconventional myosins in inner-ear sensory epithelia.

To understand how cells differentially use the dozens of myosin isozymes present in each genome, we examined the distribution of four unconventional myosin isozymes in the inner ear, a tissue that is particularly reliant on actin-rich structures and unconventional myosin isozymes. Of the four isozymes, each from a different class, three are expressed in the hair cells of amphibia and mammals. In stereocilia, constructed of cross-linked F-actin filaments, myosin-Ibeta is found mostly near stereociliary tips, myosin-VI is largely absent, and myosin-VIIa colocalizes with crosslinks that connect adjacent stereocilia. In the cuticular plate, a meshwork of actin filaments, myosin-Ibeta is excluded, myosin-VI is concentrated, and modest amounts of myosin-VIIa are present. These three myosin isozymes are excluded from other actin-rich domains, including the circumferential actin belt and the cortical actin network. A member of a fourth class, myosin-V, is not expressed in hair cells but is present at high levels in afferent nerve cells that innervate hair cells. Substantial amounts of myosins-Ibeta, -VI, and -VIIa are located in a pericuticular necklace that is largely free of F-actin, squeezed between (but not associated with) actin of the cuticular plate and the circumferential belt. Our localization results suggest specific functions for three hair-cell myosin isozymes. As suggested previously, myosin-Ibeta probably plays a role in adaptation; concentration of myosin-VI in cuticular plates and association with stereociliary rootlets suggest that this isozyme participates in rigidly anchoring stereocilia; and finally, colocalization with cross-links between adjacent stereocilia indicates that myosin-VIIa is required for the structural integrity of hair bundles.

The genomic structure of the gene defective in Usher syndrome type Ib (MYO7A).

Usher syndrome type Ib is a recessive autosomal disorder manifested by congenital deafness, vestibular dysfunction, and progressive retinal degeneration. Mutations in the human myosin VIIa gene (MYO7A) have been reported to cause Usher type Ib. Here we report the genomic organization of MYO7A. An STS content map was determined to discover the YAC clones that would cover the critical region for Usher syndrome type Ib. Three of the YACs (802A5, 966D6, and 965F10) were subcloned into cosmids and used to assemble a preliminary cosmid contig of the critical region. Part of the gene encoding human myosin VIIa was found in the preliminary cosmid contig. A cosmid, P1, PAC, and long PCR contig that contained the entire MYO7A gene was assembled. Primers were designed from the composite cDNA sequence and used to detect intron-exon junctions by directly sequencing cosmid, P1, PAC, and genomic PCR DNA. Alternatively spliced products were transcribed from the MYO7A gene: the largest transcript (7.4 kb) contains 49 exons. The MYO7A gene is relatively large, spanning approximately 120 kb of genomic DNA on chromosome 11q13.

Effects of shaker-1 mutations on myosin-VIIa protein and mRNA expression.

Numerous mammalian diseases have been found to be due to mutations in components of the actin cytoskeleton. Recently, mutations in the gene for an unconventional myosin, myosin-VIIa, were found to be the basis for the deafness and vestibular dysfunction observed in shaker-1 (sh1) mice and for a human deafness-blindness syndrome, Usher syndrome type 1B. Seven alleles of sh1 mice were analyzed to assess the affects of different myosin-VIIa mutations on both gene expression and tissue function. Myosin-VIIa is expressed in the inner ear and the retina, as well as the kidney, lung, and testis. Northern blot analysis indicated that myosin-VIIa mRNA expression, size, and stability were unaffected in the seven sh1 alleles. Immunoblot analysis showed that all seven alleles expressed some full-length myosin-VIIa protein. The range of expression, however, ran from sh1 [original], which expressed wild-type levels of protein, to two strains, sh1(4494SB) and sh1(4626SB), which expressed less than 1% of the normal level of myosin-VIIa protein. For the three alleles of sh1 that have been characterized and that have mutations in the motor domain, sh1 [original], sh1(816SB) and sh1(6J), the level of protein expression observed in these sh1 alleles correlated well with the predicted effects of the mutations on motor function. No change in retinal or testicular structure was observed at the light microscopic level during the life span of the seven sh1 alleles. Myosin-VIIa protein, when detectable, was observed to locate properly in the sh1 mice. On the basis of these results, we propose that the mutations in myosin-VIIa in the sh1 alleles leads to both motor dysfunction and to a protein destabilization phenotype.

The growing family of myosin motors and their role in neurons and sensory cells.

Biochemical and physiological evidence has suggested that myosins, both conventional and unconventional, are critical for neurosensory activities. In the past few years, this premise has been supported by genetic evidence that has shown that unconventional myosins are essential for the proper functioning of neurons, retina and the sensory cells of the inner ear.

An experimental model for infiltration of malignant lymphoma to the eye and brain.

Currently there is no adequate experimental model available whereby the lethal infiltration of malignant lymphoma to the eye and CNS can be studied. Variant S49 mouse lymphoma cells that exhibit cell-cell adhesion properties (named Rev-2-T-6) were inoculated intraperitoneally into Balb/C mice at the ages of 6-60 days postnatal. Mice inoculated between days 6-11 postnatal developed signs of eye and CNS involvement with an apparent peak (58% of mice) at day 7. None of the mice inoculated beyond day 11 exhibited such signs. Histological analysis of these sites revealed tumorous infiltrates into a variety of structures in the orbit, intraocular tissues, along the optic nerve and in the brain. Additional analysis of the histopathological data, based on the structures demonstrating the highest frequency of lymphoma infiltration, suggests preferred routes of lymphoma entry to the brain and eye. Thus, entry to the brain can occur mainly through the choroid plexus and cranial nerves or cranial nerve ganglia. Entry to the eye may occur from the brain (along the optic nerve), and through hematogenous infiltration of orbital structures. No data were found that would support retrograde infiltration of the lymphoma from the eye to the brain. These findings present an experimental model for addressing the molecular mechanisms that govern homing of malignant lymphoma to the eye and brain, as well as the development of experimental therapeutic modalities for malignant lymphoma in these organs.