Cytotoxic effector functions of T cells are not required for protective immunity against fatal Rickettsia typhi infection in a murine model of infection: Role of TH1 and TH17 cytokines in protection and pathology.

Endemic typhus caused by Rickettsia (R.) typhi is an emerging febrile disease that can be fatal due to multiple organ pathology. Here we analyzed the requirements for protection against R. typhi by T cells in the CB17 SCID model of infection. BALB/c wild-type mice generate CD4+ TH1 and cytotoxic CD8+ T cells both of which are sporadically reactivated in persistent infection. Either adoptively transferred CD8+ or CD4+ T cells protected R. typhi-infected CB17 SCID mice from death and provided long-term control. CD8+ T cells lacking either IFNγ or Perforin were still protective, demonstrating that the cytotoxic function of CD8+ T cells is not essential for protection. Immune wild-type CD4+ T cells produced high amounts of IFNγ, induced the release of nitric oxide in R. typhi-infected macrophages and inhibited bacterial growth in vitro via IFNγ and TNFα. However, adoptive transfer of CD4+IFNγ-/- T cells still protected 30-90% of R. typhi-infected CB17 SCID mice. These cells acquired a TH17 phenotype, producing high amounts of IL-17A and IL-22 in addition to TNFα, and inhibited bacterial growth in vitro. Surprisingly, the neutralization of either TNFα or IL-17A in CD4+IFNγ-/- T cell recipient mice did not alter bacterial elimination by these cells in vivo, led to faster recovery and enhanced survival compared to isotype-treated animals. Thus, collectively these data show that although CD4+ TH1 cells are clearly efficient in protection against R. typhi, CD4+ TH17 cells are similarly protective if the harmful effects of combined production of TNFα and IL-17A can be inhibited.

CD4+ T Cells Are as Protective as CD8+ T Cells against Rickettsia typhi Infection by Activating Macrophage Bactericidal Activity.

Rickettsia typhi is an intracellular bacterium that causes endemic typhus, a febrile disease that can be fatal due to complications including pneumonia, hepatitis and meningoencephalitis, the latter being a regular outcome in T and B cell-deficient C57BL/6 RAG1-/- mice upon Rickettsia typhi infection. Here, we show that CD4+ TH1 cells that are generated in C57BL/6 mice upon R. typhi infection are as protective as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. CD4+- as well as CD8+-deficient C57BL/6 survived the infection without showing symptoms of disease at any point in time. Moreover, adoptively transferred CD8+ and CD4+ immune T cells entered the CNS of C57BL/6 RAG1-/- mice with advanced infection and both eradicated the bacteria. However, immune CD4+ T cells protected only approximately 60% of the animals from death. They induced the expression of iNOS in infiltrating macrophages as well as in resident microglia in the CNS which can contribute to bacterial killing but also accelerate pathology. In vitro immune CD4+ T cells inhibited bacterial growth in infected macrophages which was in part mediated by the release of IFNγ. Collectively, our data demonstrate that CD4+ T cells are as protective as CD8+ T cells against R. typhi, provided that CD4+ TH1 effector cells are present in time to support bactericidal activity of phagocytes via the release of IFNγ and other factors. With regard to vaccination against TG Rickettsiae, our findings suggest that the induction of CD4+ TH1 effector cells is sufficient for protection.

Liver Necrosis and Lethal Systemic Inflammation in a Murine Model of Rickettsia typhi Infection: Role of Neutrophils, Macrophages and NK Cells.

Rickettsia (R.) typhi is the causative agent of endemic typhus, an emerging febrile disease that is associated with complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis and liver dysfunction. To elucidate how innate immune mechanisms contribute to defense and pathology we here analyzed R. typhi infection of CB17 SCID mice that are congenic to BALB/c mice but lack adaptive immunity. CB17 SCID mice succumbed to R. typhi infection within 21 days and showed high bacterial load in spleen, brain, lung, and liver. Most evident pathological changes in R. typhi-infected CB17 SCID mice were massive liver necrosis and splenomegaly due to the disproportionate accumulation of neutrophils and macrophages (MΦ). Both neutrophils and MΦ infiltrated the liver and harbored R. typhi. Both cell populations expressed iNOS and produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and, thus, exhibited an inflammatory and bactericidal phenotype. Surprisingly, depletion of neutrophils completely prevented liver necrosis but neither altered bacterial load nor protected CB17 SCID mice from death. Furthermore, the absence of neutrophils had no impact on the overwhelming systemic inflammatory response in these mice. This response was predominantly driven by activated MΦ and NK cells both of which expressed IFNγ and is considered as the reason of death. Finally, we observed that iNOS expression by MΦ and neutrophils did not correlate with R. typhi uptake in vivo. Moreover, we demonstrate that MΦ hardly respond to R. typhi in vitro. These findings indicate that R. typhi enters MΦ and also neutrophils unrecognized and that activation of these cells is mediated by other mechanisms in the context of tissue damage in vivo.