Infant Feeding Practices That Substitute Exclusive Breastfeeding in a Semi-Rural Mexican Community: Types, Moments, and Associated Factors.

International organizations recommend mothers practice exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) during the first six months of their infant's life and introduce complementary feeding (CF) thereafter while continuing breastfeeding. However, the earlier introduction of liquids and foods is common worldwide and may have negative effects on breastfeeding practice, nutrition, and health. In this formative cross-sectional study, we interviewed 143 mothers from semi-rural communities in Tabasco, Mexico, whose infants were 4-6 months old. We explored (1) which feeding practices substituted EBF and (2) which factors were associated with each practice. During the first month of life, 42.7% of infants received formula milk (FM); this proportion increased to 74.5% by the sixth month. Adjusted Poisson regression analyses showed that giving FM was positively related to working away from home (PR 1.27; 95% CI 1.06, 1.54) and the perception that FM is an important food to accompany breast milk (PR 1.38; 95% CI 1.19, 1.70). Giving FM was negatively associated with not being sure the infant is full after breastfeeding (PR 0.75; 95% CI 0.61, 0.92). Regarding CF, less than half (47.5%) of infants had not received it by the fifth month. Factors positively associated with timely CF introduction were: the mother was told during prenatal care visits the optimal age to start CF is 6 months (PR 1.17, 95% CI 1.06, 1.29); she is convinced that giving only breast milk is best for her baby (PR 1.15, 95% CI 1.03, 1.29), and a higher infant weight-for-length (PR 1.04, 95% CI 1.00, 1.08) and length for age (PR 1.04, 95% CI 1.00, 1.09) z-scores at the study visit; conversely, it was negatively associated to the idea that if the infant is not full, she/he should receive formula milk or some other food (PR 0.87, 95% CI 0.78, 0.96). In these communities, EBF is lost to the use of FM and early CF. The factors associated with these inadequate feeding practices are related to returning to work, information received during prenatal visits, and the mother's beliefs and thoughts. This work will guide the design of an intervention on infant feeding practices for these communities and other similar ones.

Exclusive Breastfeeding and Factors Influencing Its Abandonment During the 1st Month Postpartum Among Women From Semi-rural Communities in Southeast Mexico.

INTRODUCTION: In this study we describe breastfeeding practices among women from semi-rural communities in southeast Mexico, and explore which factors, modifiable or not, are associated with such practices. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a formative cross-sectional study that included 143 mothers with infants 4-6 months old, from semi-rural communities in Tabasco, Mexico. We collected data on two categories of factors: (1) women's sociodemographic characteristics, and (2) maternal / infant factors. We first analyzed the frequency of various breastfeeding practices. Then, we classified participants into the up to 1 month of exclusive breastfeeding group ( ≤ 1 m-EBF) and the beyond 1 month EBF group (>1 m-EBF), if they practiced EBF for less or more than 1 month, respectively. We compared the two categories of factors between groups and then, using logistic regression models, explored which factors were associated with practicing >1 m-EBF. RESULTS: By the end of the 1st month postpartum, 51.7% of participants had abandoned EBF, introduced milk formula (35%), other food (9.1%), non-nutritive liquids (7.7%), or had stopped breastfeeding completely. In the next months, EBF practice fell sharply and mixed feeding grew importantly.Logistic regression models showed that women were more likely to be in the >1 m-EBF group if they lived with the baby's father, had complications during pregnancy, delivered vaginally and attended a health center at least three times postpartum. To the contrary, women were less likely to be practice >1 m-EBF if they gave infants other liquids during their hospital stay; experienced pain or discomfort in breasts/nipples, or used a pacifier after hospitalization; had larger bodies (i.e., higher BMI); and believed that you should give the infant powdered milk or some other food when the baby is not full. CONCLUSION: Many factors associated with abandoning EBF, particularly in the early postpartum period, are modifiable and can be altered through timely interventions that include giving correct information and ensuring its comprehension; assertive personal counseling and accompaniment must be provided to mothers; and reinforcement during the early postpartum at health facilities and other settings.

[Pregnancy and breastfeeding]. / Embarazo y lactancia.

During pregnancy and breastfeeding the demand for nutrients that promote the growth and development of the fetus, maternal tissues and breastmilk production is increased. Milk and dairy products provide energy, proteins, fatty acids, carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins D and B12, therefore their importance during pregnancy and breastfeeding. The energy through food supply allows the development and growth from the conception; protein promotes the rapid growth of the maternal and fetal tissues: fatty acids stimulate the development of the fetus central nervous system; carbohydrates are essential to support fetal brain growth; calcium is essential for the formation and mineralization of the fetus skeleton, while vitamin D promotes calcium absorption and the development of the nervous and immune systems. Multiple studies refer a positive association between the consumption of dairy products and birth weight. Regarding height, some papers show an increase in the femur length and in the total height (head-ankle) with regard to the intake of dairy products. Few studies report an association between a specific dairy product and the presence of allergic diseases. Therefore, more research is mandatory.

[Young children, toddlers and school age children]. / Niño pequeño, preescolar y escolar.

Cow´s milk represents a very important source of proteins of high biological value and calcium in the child´s diet. The aim of this article is to review the available evidences of its role in nutrition of young children and school age children. Its main benefits are related with effects in linear growth, bone health and oral health, as protein source in early severe malnutrition, and it does not appears to influence metabolic syndrome risk and autism. High protein content in cow´s milk and increased protein consumption by children during the complementary feeding period is associated to the risk of developing a high body mass index and obesity in school-age children; therefore, milk consumption should be mildly restricted during the second year of life and to 480-720 ml/day during the first years of life. Its relationship with some diseases has not been confirmed, and milk consumption is associated with iron deficiency. The use of low-fat cow's milk instead of regular milk in young children remains controversial and its introduction is not advised before 2 to 4 years of age.

[Guía latinoamericana para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de alergia a las proteínas de la leche de vaca (GL-APLV)].

Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is an immune-based disease that has become an increasing problem. The diagnosis and management of CMA varies from one clinical setting to another and represents a challenge in pediatric practice. In addition, because nonallergic food reactions can be confused with CMA symptoms, there is an overdiagnosis of the disease. In response to these situations, pediatric specialties from recognized institutions throughout Latin America decided to develop a clinical guideline for diagnosis and management of cow's milk allergy. These guidelines include definitions, epidemiology, pathophysiology overview, clinical and evidencebased recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of CMA. They also include prevention and prognosis sections and identify gaps in the current knowledge to be addressed through future research.

[Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of constipation in Mexico. D) Evaluation and treatment of constipation in pediatric population]. / Guías de diagnóstico y tratamiento del estreñimiento en México. D) Evaluación y tratamiento del estreñimiento en población pediátrica.

BACKGROUND: Constipation is one of the most common causes of consultation in pediatric practice, it has a multifactorial etiology and its treatment can be complex. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: To establish the clinical guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of chronic constipation in pediatric population in Mexico, a review of the epidemiological, diagnostic and therapeutic aspects was conducted by an expert group of pediatric gastroenterologist in our country. RESULTS: Constipation is a symptom that reflects the presence of fecal retention, which is reported by patients or their relatives as decreased stool frequency, hard stools, and sometimes pain and excessive pushing. Constipation can occur at any stage of childhood. The main trigger for fecal retention is the painful evacuation. Patients who meet the Rome III criteria for functional constipation do not require diagnostic tests. The diagnostic tests are reserved for cases in which alarm signs are present and in patients refractory to conventional treatment. The goal of treatment is to promote smooth and painless evacuations preventing reaccumulation of stool. Osmotic laxatives such as polyethylene glycol and lactulose are the most effective treatments. In special cases, biofeedback therapy, the use of botulinum toxin and surgery can be effective, although the evidence is weak. CONCLUSIONS: Management of chronic constipation in pediatric population requires a comprehensive diagnostic approach.

Asociación de asma, obesidad y enfermedad por reflujo gastroesofágico en niños / Asthma, obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease association in children

Introducción. La enfermedad por reflujo gastroesofágico (ERGE) es una entidad altamente prevalente en nuestro medio; puede manifestarse en pacientes pediátricos como tos crónica o asma. También se ha evidenciado mayor prevalencia de ERGE en pacientes obesos. La asociación entre asma y obesidad ha sido descrita. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar la frecuencia de síntomas de ERGE en pacientes obesos con y sin asma. Métodos. Este es un estudio transversal, descriptivo, donde se evaluaron, mediante un cuestionario validado, síntomas de ERGE en pacientes obesos con y sin asma. Resultados. Se incluyeron 75 pacientes con una edad media de 11.9 ± 2 años, con índice de masa corporal (IMC) promedio de 26.7 ± 4 kg/m² (puntaje Z de 3.8 ± 1.7). Encontramos una frecuencia de ERGE por cuestionario de síntomas de 48% (36 pacientes). Además, 52% de los pacientes (39 casos) tenían el diagnóstico de asma. Los pacientes obesos con sintomatología de asma y ERGE combinadas tuvieron una frecuencia de 36% (27 pacientes); en los pacientes no asmáticos fue de 12% (9 pacientes). Esta diferencia es significativa (X² =14.6, P <0.05). La razón de momios de presentar ERGE en pacientes asmáticos con obesidad es de 6.75 (intervalo de confianza de 95% 2.4-18.6). Conclusión. Presentar obesidad y asma simultáneamente incrementa el riesgo de tener ERGE en la población pediátrica. El manejo de los pacientes con estas alteraciones concomitantes aparece como un reto. El desarrollo de nuevas guías clínicas para la atención eficaz de nuestra población tendrá que cambiar necesariamente ante la inminente transición epidemiológica tan altamente prevalente en obesidad.

Introduction. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is highly prevalent in México. GERD may appear as a symptom of asthma, and has been widely associated with obesity; asthma and obesity are also associated. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of GERD symptoms in obese patients with or without asthma. Methods. This is a longitudinal study in which GERD symptoms were evaluated according to a validated questionnaire in obese patients with or without asthma. Results. Seventy-five patients with an average age of 11.9 ± 2 years were included. Their mean BMI was 26.7 ± 4 kg/m² (zBMI score 3.8 ± 1.7). We found GERD symptoms in 36 patients (48%). Fifty-two percent of the patients also had a diagnosis of asthma; 27 (36%) asthmatic patients showed GERD symptoms and asthma, and only 9 patients (12%) without asthma had GERD symptoms. This is a significant difference (X² =14.6, P <0.05). The odds ratio of having GERD symptoms for obese patients with asthma was 6.75 (IC 95% 2.4-18.6). Conclusion. Asthma and obesity on a concurrent basis increase considerably the risk of developing GERD symptoms in children. Management of patients with simultaneous obesity and asthma is an important challenge for practitioners. New clinical guidelines for a better approach to obese children are needed in view of the imminent epidemiological transition in our country.

Síndrome de Fanconi-Bickel: reporte de un caso / Fanconi-Bickel syndrome: A case report

Introducción. El síndrome de Fanconi-Bickel (SFB) se caracteriza por hepatomegalia, con acumulación de glucógeno en hígado y riñones, glucosuria, aminoaciduria y fosfaturia; fue descrito en 1949 y catalogado como glucogenosis XI. Es una enfermedad autosómica recesiva, y se han detectado 34 mutaciones en el gen del GLUT2. Caso clínico. Niño de 4 años 3 meses de edad, hospitalizado por retardo psicomotor y falla de medro desde los 6 meses de edad, con rosario raquítico, hepatomegalia, elevación de aminotransferasas y fosfatasa alcalina en sangre, hipercolesterolemia e hipertrigiliceridemia, glucosuria, aminoaciduria y fosfaturia. Las radiografías de huesos largos mostraron ensanchamiento metafisiario y pobre mineralización ósea. La biopsia hepática mostró arquitectura conservada, congestión sinusoidal, y reacción de PAS positiva intensa, que desaparece con la diastasa; la microscopia electrónica demostró abundante glucógeno de distribución normal. Conclusión. Este es el cuarto caso reportado en México de SFB. Los signos clínicos típicos se detectaron en el segundo año de vida. La glucogenosis se considera ahora un epifenómeno en el SFB por defecto del transportador GLUT2 de glucosa y galactosa. El paciente de este informe respondió adecuadamente al manejo nutricional. La acumulación excesiva de glucógeno en el hígado no es un elemento sine qua non para el diagnóstico.

Introduction. Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (FBS) is characterized by hepatomegaly due to glycogen hepatic storage, renal glycogen accumulation, glycosuria, aminoaciduria and phosphaturia. It was first described in 1949 and classified as a glycogen storage disease XI. This is an autosomic recessive disorder for which 34 mutations in the gene coding for glucose and galactose transporter (GLUT2) have been reported. Case report. A 4-year and 3-month old child was admitted in the hospital with development delay, failure to thrive since 6 months of age, rachitic rosary, hepatomegaly, hypertransaminasemia, high serum alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol and triglycerides, glycosuria, aminoaciduria and phosphaturia. Metaphyseal enlargement and signs of osteopenia were seen on radiographic studies. Liver biopsy showed normal parenchyma architecture with sinusoidal congestion, diastase-sensitive intense PAS-positive reaction. Electronic microscopy showed large glycogen deposits with normal distribution. Conclusion. This is the 4th case detected in Mexico, with typical signs of FBS detected during the second year of life. The patient responded well to diet therapy. Glycogen storage in FBS is currently considered an epiphenomenon due to dysfunction in the glucose and galactose membrane transporter GLUT2. Massive hepatic glycogen storage is not a sine qua non element for the diagnosis of FBS.

[Children and adolescents with hepatitis C virus infection]. / Niños y adolescentes con infección por virus de la hepatitis C.

Prevalence of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is lower in children than in adults. The detection rate of anti-HCV antibodies in Western countries is 0.1-0.4% among children and adolescents. Prevalence of serologic response is higher in risk groups. HCV infection in children is usually asymptomatic, most of them have variations in serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALA). The laboratory exams for children are the same as those for adults. Histological progression may be faster in children than in adults. In this age group, HCV infection is considered as a special category, in which case it's possible to maintain the patient in observation without antiviral therapy. However, some studies with monotherapy showed that a regime with 1.75-3 MU/m2 of interferon alpha during 6-12 months induces a sustained viral response in 33-56% of the children. Although ribavirin hasn't yet been accepted for pediatric use, there have been several clinical tests in small groups with oral doses of 15 mg/kg a day, combined with interferon, during 12 months. The results are good. Pegylated interferon alpha is not authorized for pediatric use.

Antimicrobianos de acción local en niños con diarrea prolongada y sobrecrecimiento bacteriano / Local antibiotics in children with protracted diarrhea and bacterial overgrowth

Estudio de 58 niños (mayores de un mes y menores de dos años de edad) con diarrea continua de más de 15 días y sin haber recibido antibióticos 72 horas antes del ingreso. En cada paciente se efectuó cultivo cuantitativo de bacterias aerobias y anaerobias en líquido duodenal. Dicho cultivo resultó positivo en 25.8% de los pacientes; de ellos, 93% fue de aerobios y 7% de anaerobios. El germen que con más frecuencia se aisló fue E. coli (cultivos positivos, 53%). Cinco pacientes con cultivo positivo para aerobios recibieron neomicina vía bucal, resultando negativo el segundo cultivo tomado seis días después; otros cinco no recibieron el antibiótico, ocurriendo cultivo positivo en cuatro y negativo en uno a los seis días del cultivo inicial, con diferencia estadística significativa p<0.01