The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the frontal asymmetry and spectral power literature.

The original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (oRST) proposes two systems of approach (BAS) and avoidance (BIS) motivation to underpin personality and behavior. The revised-RST (rRST) model separates avoidance motivation into passive (BIS; anxiety) and active (FFFS; fear) systems. Prior research has attempted to map RST onto lateralized frontal asymmetry to provide a neurophysiological marker of RST. The main aim is to examine the relationships of the o/rRST scales with trait (baseline) and state (manipulated through experimental paradigms) frontal asymmetry. A systematic review was conducted, resulting in 158 studies designated to neuroimaging research. In total, 54 studies were included in this review using either frontal asymmetry or spectral power. The results were split into three main categories: resting frontal alpha asymmetry (N = 23), emotional induction and state-related frontal alpha asymmetry (N = 20), and spectral analysis (N = 16). Findings indicated that BAS was associated with enhanced left frontal asymmetry at baseline and during state-related paradigms. Findings for BIS were more inconsistent, especially at rest, suggesting that BIS, in particular, may require active engagement with the environment. Only 9 of the 54 papers included used the revised RST model, highlighting the need for more rRST research.

Enhancing biofeedback-driven self-guided virtual reality exposure therapy through arousal detection from multimodal data using machine learning.

Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) is a novel intervention technique that allows individuals to experience anxiety-evoking stimuli in a safe environment, recognise specific triggers and gradually increase their exposure to perceived threats. Public-speaking anxiety (PSA) is a prevalent form of social anxiety, characterised by stressful arousal and anxiety generated when presenting to an audience. In self-guided VRET, participants can gradually increase their tolerance to exposure and reduce anxiety-induced arousal and PSA over time. However, creating such a VR environment and determining physiological indices of anxiety-induced arousal or distress is an open challenge. Environment modelling, character creation and animation, psychological state determination and the use of machine learning (ML) models for anxiety or stress detection are equally important, and multi-disciplinary expertise is required. In this work, we have explored a series of ML models with publicly available data sets (using electroencephalogram and heart rate variability) to predict arousal states. If we can detect anxiety-induced arousal, we can trigger calming activities to allow individuals to cope with and overcome distress. Here, we discuss the means of effective selection of ML models and parameters in arousal detection. We propose a pipeline to overcome the model selection problem with different parameter settings in the context of virtual reality exposure therapy. This pipeline can be extended to other domains of interest where arousal detection is crucial. Finally, we have implemented a biofeedback framework for VRET where we successfully provided feedback as a form of heart rate and brain laterality index from our acquired multimodal data for psychological intervention to overcome anxiety.

COVID-19 prevention behaviour is differentially motivated by primary psychopathy, grandiose narcissism and vulnerable Dark Triad traits.

Dark Triad traits (psychopathy, narcissism) are associated with nonadherence to COVID-19 prevention measures such as social distancing and wearing face masks, although the psychological mechanisms underpinning this relationship remain unclear. In contrast, high threat-sensitivity may motivate compliance, and maybe seen in relation to vulnerable dark traits (secondary psychopathy, vulnerable narcissism and borderline personality disorder). The relationship between vulnerable dark traits and COVID-19 prevention behaviour has not been examined. During April 2021, participants (n = 263) completed an online psychometric study assessing engagement with COVID-19 prevention behaviour, traditional DT traits (primary psychopathy; grandiose narcissism) and vulnerable DT traits. Potential indirect effects were fear of COVID-19, perceived coronavirus severity, belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories and altruism. Model of path analysis identified predictors of engagement in disease prevention behaviour. Primary psychopathy, grandiose narcissism, secondary psychopathy and BPD were associated with less COVID-19 prevention behaviour, with an indirect effect of reduced coronavirus severity. Grandiose narcissism and BPD were also motivated by COVID-19 conspiracy theories, and increased prevention behaviour when fear of COVID-19 was higher. No direct or indirect effects were observed for vulnerable narcissism. The current study is the first to elucidate psychological mechanisms linking vulnerable dark traits with COVID-19 prevention behaviour.

The mental health benefits of community helping during crisis: Coordinated helping, community identification and sense of unity during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Communities are vital sources of support during crisis, providing collective contexts for shared identity and solidarity that predict supportive, prosocial responses. The COVID-19 pandemic has presented a global health crisis capable of exerting a heavy toll on the mental health of community members while inducing unwelcome levels of social disconnection. Simultaneously, lockdown restrictions have forced vulnerable community members to depend upon the support of fellow residents. Fortunately, voluntary helping can be beneficial to the well-being of the helper as well as the recipient, offering beneficial collective solutions. Using insights from social identity approaches to volunteering and disaster responses, this study explored whether the opportunity to engage in helping fellow community members may be both unifying and beneficial for those engaging in coordinated community helping. Survey data collected in the UK during June 2020 showed that coordinated community helping predicted the psychological bonding of community members by building a sense of community identification and unity during the pandemic, which predicted increased well-being and reduced depression and anxiety. Implications for the promotion and support of voluntary helping initiatives in the context of longer-term responses to the COVID-19 pandemic are provided. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Exploring the "Dark Matter" of Social Interaction: Systematic Review of a Decade of Research in Spontaneous Interpersonal Coordination.

Interpersonal coordination is a research topic that has attracted considerable attention this last decade both due to a theoretical shift from intra-individual to inter-individual processes and due to the development of new methods for recording and analyzing movements in ecological settings. Encompassing spatiotemporal behavioral matching, interpersonal coordination is considered as "social glue" due to its capacity to foster social bonding. However, the mechanisms underlying this effect are still unclear and recent findings suggest a complex picture. Goal-oriented joint action and spontaneous coordination are often conflated, making it difficult to disentangle the role of joint commitment from unconscious mutual attunement. Consequently, the goals of the present article are twofold: (1) to illustrate the rapid expansion of interpersonal coordination as a research topic and (2) to conduct a systematic review of spontaneous interpersonal coordination, summarizing its latest developments and current challenges this last decade. By applying Rapid Automatic Keyword Extraction and Latent Dirichlet Allocation algorithms, keywords were extracted from PubMed and Scopus databases revealing the large diversity of research topics associated with spontaneous interpersonal coordination. Using the same databases and the keywords "behavioral matching," "interactional synchrony," and "interpersonal coordination," 1,213 articles were identified, extracted, and screened following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol. A total of 19 articles were selected using the following inclusion criteria: (1) dynamic and spontaneous interactions between two unacquainted individuals (2) kinematic analyses, and (3) non-clinical and non-expert adult populations. The results of this systematic review stress the proliferation of various definitions and experimental paradigms that study perceptual and/or social influences on the emergence of spontaneous interpersonal coordination. As methods and indices used to quantify interpersonal coordination differ from one study to another, it becomes difficult to establish a coherent picture. This review highlights the need to reconsider interpersonal coordination not as the pinnacle of social interactions but as a complex dynamical process that requires cautious interpretation. An interdisciplinary approach is necessary for building bridges across scattered research fields through opening a dialogue between different theoretical frameworks and consequently provides a more ecological and holistic understanding of human social cognition.

The Effectiveness of Self-Guided Virtual-Reality Exposure Therapy for Public-Speaking Anxiety.

Objectives: Self-guided virtual-reality exposure therapy (VRET) is a psychological intervention that enables a person to increase their own exposure to perceived threat. Public-speaking anxiety (PSA) is an anxiety-provoking social situation that is characterized by fear of negative evaluation from an audience. This pilot study aimed to determine whether self-guided VRET (1) increases exposure to PSA-specific virtual social threats, and (2) reduces anxiety, arousal, heartrate and PSA over repeated exposure. Methods: Thirty-two University students (27 completers) with high self-reported public-speaking anxiety attended 2 weekly self-guided VRET sessions. Each session involved the participant delivering a 20-min speech in a virtual classroom. Participants were able to increase their exposure to virtual social threat through the audience size, audience reaction, number of speech prompts, and their own salience in the virtual classroom at 4-min intervals. Participants' heartrates and self-reported anxiety and arousal were monitored during these intervals. Participants completed psychometric assessments after each session and 1 month later. Results: Participants increased their exposure to virtual social threat during each VRET session, which coincided with a reduction in heartrate and self-reported anxiety and arousal. Improvement in PSA occurred post-treatment and 1 month later. The in-session improvement in anxiety correlated with reductions in fear of negative evaluation post-treatment and 1 month later. Conclusions: Increased self-exposure to virtual social threat from self-guided VRET relieves anxiety and shows immediate reductions in subjective and physiological arousal during application, but also yields sustained improvement in PSA.

Empathy at the Heart of Darkness: Empathy Deficits That Bind the Dark Triad and Those That Mediate Indirect Relational Aggression.

The dark triad (DT) traits-psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism-have collectively been linked to reduced empathy and increased aggression; however, their association with distinct empathic subtypes remains unclear; and unique links to indirect relational aggression (IRA) have not been delineated. Moreover, whether dark traits should be conceptualized individually, as a dyad or as a triad with a dark core centered around the absence of empathy is debated. The current study examines (i) whether impaired empathy indeed represents a common "dark core" binding Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, and (ii) this core explains associations between the dark traits and IRA. Participants (N = 301, 262 F/39 M) completed measures of the DT traits, cognitive and affective empathy components and IRA (Social Exclusion, Malicious Humor and Guilt Induction). The individual traits model without links between narcissism and IRA showed the best fit, suggesting that, at least in the context of IRA, the DT traits are best viewed as three independent personality traits. Distinct cognitive and affective empathy deficits and capacities are seen in the DT. Peripheral responsivity was the only type of empathy deficit associated with all dark traits, but unrelated to IRA. Psychopathy was the strongest indicator of impaired empathy and all IRAs; however, only online simulation, an affect-related cognitive empathy facet, partially mediated the relationships of psychopathy and Machiavellianism with IRA. Whilst the unique pathways for the dark triad traits suggest stronger alignment of psychopathy and Machiavellianism in their empathic deficits and indirect aggression; the data do not support the notion that an unempathic dark core underpinning all three traits drives indirect aggression. This is the first paper delineating the specific empathic deficits involved using a facet approach and their link to indirect forms of aggression. Results therefore inform theoretical models of aggression in the DT and offer some clarity on the debates surrounding the unempathic dark core in the DT.

Exploring Thematic Nightmare Content and Associated Self-Harm Risk.

Nightmares have been shown to be robust predictors of self-harm risk, beyond depressive symptoms and hopelessness at times. However, few studies have investigated associations between nightmare content and increased self-harm risk. This study explored associations of thematic nightmare content with history of self-harm, and risk of self-harm phenomena the morning following a nightmare. A mixed-method diary study was performed. Prospective nightmare reports were obtained from 72 participants. A total of 47 nightmare reports met inclusion criteria and were analyzed for themes using inductive thematic analysis. Chi-square and bootstrap Pearson's correlation tests were performed to assess the associations between nightmare themes and self-harm history, and risk of self-harm phenomena following a nightmare. "Powerlessness to Change Behavior" was associated with a history of self-harm engagement, whereas "Financial Hardship" indicated reduced risk. Themes were not significantly associated with increased risk of self-harm phenomena following a nightmare. Content may be of use in detecting lifetime history of self-harm engagement, particularly in populations where disclosure is seen as taboo. However, nightmare symptom severity remains a better indicator of risk. Evidence for the utility of nightmare content in assessing immediate self-harm risk is presently lacking. Replication with increased power is recommended.

Reduction in lower-alpha power during Ganzfeld flicker stimulation is associated with the production of imagery and trait positive schizotypy.

Light-flicker Ganzfeld (LFG) induces a lower to upper-alpha frequency shift. However, it is unclear how this neurophysiological response might relate to LFG-induced pseudo-hallucinatory phenomena. It is also unknown whether emotional states (e.g., fear) or traits associated with risk for psychosis (e.g., proneness to perceptual anomalies, ability to produce vivid mental imagery) affect such neurophysiological and/or perceptual responses to LFG. The present study investigated alpha sub-bands during LFG across several flicker frequencies, in relation to individual differences in propensity for Ganzfeld-induced imagery (GI), positive schizotypy and trait mental imagery, and in relation to manipulations of affective state. Given previously reported sex differences in risk for psychosis and response to Ganzfeld, the effect of sex on GI was also studied. Forty-six healthy adults (16 men) completed psychometric measures of trait mental imagery and positive schizotypy before undergoing three LFG (20 min each) conditions. In each condition, participants wore white-out goggles and listened to either mood-inducing soundscapes (fear, serenity) or pink noise (control) through headphones. Greatest propensity for GI arose between 13.1 and 16.0 Hz flicker, with a peak at 16.0 Hz flicker. Occipital lower-alpha was reduced for lower flicker frequencies (13.1-16.0 Hz) and was inversely associated with GI. Upper-alpha power was not significantly related to GI or to other measures. Fear-induction was associated with reduction in alpha power, but did not significantly affect GI. Men reported more GI than women. Findings support a role for cortical destabilisation, as reflected in reduced lower-alpha, in perceptual anomalies; and, by extension, LFG as an experimental model of liability for psychosis.

Neurophysiological correlates of excitement in men with recent-onset psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: Right frontal function, as indicated by the N200 component of the event-related potential during target detection, has previously been associated with excitement (excitement, impulsivity, hostility, uncooperativeness) in men with a long-term diagnosis of schizophrenia. The current study investigated excitement in relation to N200 in men who had recently experienced their first episode of psychosis. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Twenty men who had recently suffered their first psychotic episode underwent a clinical interview and auditory oddball task. RESULTS: Multiple linear regression analysis showed that 58% of the variance in the excitement symptom cluster was explained by a positive association with frontal midline N200 amplitude and an inverse association with right frontal N200 amplitude. The latter was not apparent in the initial correlation, suggesting suppression by the midline activity. These associations were not explained by drug use, medication or negative symptoms. However, the correlation between excitement and midline N200 was stronger in drug users, and that between right frontal N200 and excitement was stronger in nonusers. CONCLUSION: Findings support the independent contributions to excitement of mechanisms reflected in midline and right frontal N200 amplitude respectively during the early stages of psychosis.

Investigating the Interaction Between Sleep Symptoms of Arousal and Acquired Capability in Predicting Suicidality.

Heightened arousal significantly interacts with acquired capability to predict suicidality. We explore this interaction with insomnia and nightmares independently of waking state arousal symptoms, and test predictions of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (IPTS) and Escape Theory in relation to these sleep arousal symptoms. Findings from our e-survey (n = 540) supported the IPTS over models of Suicide as Escape. Sleep-specific measurements of arousal (insomnia and nightmares) showed no main effect, yet interacted with acquired capability to predict increased suicidality. The explained variance in suicidality by the interaction (1%-2%) using sleep-specific measures was comparable to variance explained by interactions previously reported in the literature using measurements composed of a mix of waking and sleep state arousal symptoms. Similarly, when entrapment (inability to escape) was included in models, main effects of sleep symptoms arousal were not detected yet interacted with entrapment to predict suicidality. We discuss findings in relation to treatment options suggesting that sleep-specific interventions be considered for the long-term management of at-risk individuals.

Tourette-like behaviors in the normal population are associated with hyperactive/impulsive ADHD-like behaviors but do not relate to deficits in conditioned inhibition or response inhibition.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Tourette Syndrome (TS) present as distinct conditions clinically; however, comorbidity and inhibitory control deficits have been proposed for both. Whilst such deficits have been studied widely within clinical populations, findings are mixed-partly due to comorbidity and/or medication effects-and studies have rarely distinguished between subtypes of the disorders. Studies in the general population are sparse. Using a continuity approach, the present study examined (i) the relationships between inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive aspects of ADHD and TS-like behaviors in the general population, and (ii) their unique associations with automatic and executive inhibitory control, as well as (iii) yawning (a proposed behavioral model of TS). One hundred and thirty-eight participants completed self-report measures for ADHD and TS-like behaviors as well as yawning, and a conditioned inhibition task to assess automatic inhibition. A sub-sample of fifty-four participants completed three executive inhibition tasks. An exploratory factor analysis of the TS behavior checklist supported a distinction between phonic and motor like pure TS behaviors. Whilst hyperactive/impulsive aspects of ADHD were associated with increased pure and compulsive TS-like behaviors, inattention in isolation was related to reduced obsessive-compulsive TS-like behaviors. TS-like behaviors were associated with yawning during situations of inactivity, and specifically motor TS was related to yawning during stress. Phonic TS and inattention aspects of ADHD were associated with yawning during concentration/activity. Whilst executive interference control deficits were linked to hyperactive/impulsive ADHD-like behaviors, this was not the case for inattentive ADHD or TS-like behaviors, which instead related to increased performance on some measures. No associations were observed for automatic conditioned inhibition.