A chemoselective strategy for late-stage functionalization of complex small molecules with polypeptides and proteins.

Conjugates between proteins and small molecules enable access to a vast chemical space that is not achievable with either type of molecule alone; however, the paucity of specific reactions capable of functionalizing proteins and natural products presents a formidable challenge for preparing conjugates. Here we report a strategy for conjugating electron-rich (hetero)arenes to polypeptides and proteins. Our bioconjugation technique exploits the electrophilic reactivity of an oxidized selenocysteine residue in polypeptides and proteins, and the electron-rich character of certain small molecules to provide bioconjugates in excellent yields under mild conditions. This conjugation chemistry enabled the synthesis of peptide-vancomycin conjugates without the prefunctionalization of vancomycin. These conjugates have an enhanced in vitro potency for resistant Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. Additionally, we show that a 6 kDa affibody protein and a 150 kDa immunoglobulin-G antibody could be modified without diminishing bioactivity.

Rapid phenolic O-glycosylation of small molecules and complex unprotected peptides in aqueous solvent.

Glycosylated natural products and synthetic glycopeptides represent a significant and growing source of biochemical probes and therapeutic agents. However, methods that enable the aqueous glycosylation of endogenous amino acid functionality in peptides without the use of protecting groups are scarce. Here, we report a transformation that facilitates the efficient aqueous O-glycosylation of phenolic functionality in a wide range of small molecules, unprotected tyrosine, and tyrosine residues embedded within a range of complex, fully unprotected peptides. The transformation, which uses glycosyl fluoride donors and is promoted by Ca(OH)2, proceeds rapidly at room temperature in water, with good yields and selective formation of unique anomeric products depending on the stereochemistry of the glycosyl donor. High functional group tolerance is observed, and the phenol glycosylation occurs selectively in the presence of virtually all side chains of the proteinogenic amino acids with the singular exception of Cys. This method offers a highly selective, efficient, and operationally simple approach for the protecting-group-free synthesis of O-aryl glycosides and Tyr-O-glycosylated peptides in water.

Enantioselective Nickel-Catalyzed Mizoroki-Heck Cyclizations To Generate Quaternary Stereocenters.

The development of enantioselective carbon-carbon bond couplings catalyzed by nonprecious metals is highly desirable in terms of cost efficiency and sustainability. The first nickel-catalyzed enantioselective Mizoroki-Heck coupling is reported. This transformation is accomplished via mild reaction conditions, leveraging on QuinoxP* as a chiral ligand to afford oxindoles containing quaternary stereocenters. Good reactivity and selectivity are observed in the presence of various functional groups. Computational studies suggest that the oxidative addition assembles an atropisomeric intermediate responsible for the facial selectivity of the insertion step.

Nickel-Catalyzed Esterification of Aliphatic Amides.

Recent studies have demonstrated that amides can be used in nickel-catalyzed reactions that lead to cleavage of the amide C-N bond, with formation of a C-C or C-heteroatom bond. However, the general scope of these methodologies has been restricted to amides where the carbonyl is directly attached to an arene or heteroarene. We now report the nickel-catalyzed esterification of amides derived from aliphatic carboxylic acids. The transformation requires only a slight excess of the alcohol nucleophile and is tolerant of heterocycles, substrates with epimerizable stereocenters, and sterically congested coupling partners. Moreover, a series of amide competition experiments establish selectivity principles that will aid future synthetic design. These studies overcome a critical limitation of current Ni-catalyzed amide couplings and are expected to further stimulate the use of amides as synthetic building blocks in C-N bond cleavage processes.

Construction of Quaternary Stereocenters by Nickel-Catalyzed Heck Cyclization Reactions.

A nickel-catalyzed Heck cyclization for the construction of quaternary stereocenters is reported. This transformation is demonstrated in the synthesis of 3,3-disubstituted oxindoles, which are prevalent motifs seen in numerous biologically active molecules. The method shows broad scope, proceeds in synthetically useful yields, and provides a rare means to construct stereochemically complex frameworks by nonprecious-metal catalysis.

Nickel-Catalyzed Activation of Acyl C-O Bonds of Methyl Esters.

We report the first catalytic method for activating the acyl C-O bonds of methyl esters through an oxidative-addition process. The oxidative-addition adducts, formed using nickel catalysis, undergo in situ trapping to provide anilide products. DFT calculations are used to support the proposed reaction mechanism, to understand why decarbonylation does not occur competitively, and to elucidate the beneficial role of the substrate structure and the Al(OtBu)3 additive on the kinetics and thermodynamics of the reaction.

Conversion of amides to esters by the nickel-catalysed activation of amide C-N bonds.

Amides are common functional groups that have been studied for more than a century. They are the key building blocks of proteins and are present in a broad range of other natural and synthetic compounds. Amides are known to be poor electrophiles, which is typically attributed to the resonance stability of the amide bond. Although amides can readily be cleaved by enzymes such as proteases, it is difficult to selectively break the carbon-nitrogen bond of an amide using synthetic chemistry. Here we demonstrate that amide carbon-nitrogen bonds can be activated and cleaved using nickel catalysts. We use this methodology to convert amides to esters, which is a challenging and underdeveloped transformation. The reaction methodology proceeds under exceptionally mild reaction conditions, and avoids the use of a large excess of an alcohol nucleophile. Density functional theory calculations provide insight into the thermodynamics and catalytic cycle of the amide-to-ester transformation. Our results provide a way to harness amide functional groups as synthetic building blocks and are expected to lead to the further use of amides in the construction of carbon-heteroatom or carbon-carbon bonds using non-precious-metal catalysis.

Nickel-Catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling in a Green Alcohol Solvent for an Undergraduate Organic Chemistry Laboratory.

A modern undergraduate organic chemistry laboratory experiment involving the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling is reported. Although Suzuki-Miyaura couplings typically employ palladium catalysts in environmentally harmful solvents, this experiment features the use of inexpensive nickel catalysis, in addition to a "green" alcohol solvent. The experiment employs heterocyclic substrates, which are important pharmaceutical building blocks. Thus, this laboratory procedure exposes students to a variety of contemporary topics in organic chemistry, including transition metal-catalyzed cross-couplings, green chemistry, and the importance of heterocycles in drug discovery, none of which are well represented in typical undergraduate organic chemistry curricula. The experimental protocol uses commercially available reagents and is useful in both organic and inorganic instructional laboratories.

Nickel-Catalyzed Amination of Aryl Chlorides and Sulfamates in 2-Methyl-THF.

The nickel-catalyzed amination of aryl O-sulfamates and chlorides using the green solvent 2-methyl-THF is reported. This methodology employs the commercially available and air-stable precatalyst NiCl2(DME), is broad in scope, and provides access to aryl amines in synthetically useful yields. The utility of this methodology is underscored by examples of gram-scale couplings conducted with catalyst loadings as low as 1 mol % nickel. Moreover, the nickel-catalyzed amination described is tolerant of heterocycles and should prove useful in the synthesis of pharmaceutical candidates and other heteroatom-containing compounds.

Donor substrate promiscuity of the N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase activities of Pasteurella multocida heparosan synthase 2 (PmHS2) and Escherichia coli K5 KfiA.

The biological activities of heparan sulfate (HS) and heparin (HP) are closely related to their molecular structures. Both Pasteurella multocida heparosan synthase 2 (PmHS2) and Escherichia coli K5 KfiA have been used for enzymatic and chemoenzymatic synthesis of HS and HP oligosaccharides and their derivatives. We show here that cloning using the pET15b vector and expressing PmHS2 as an N-His6-tagged fusion protein improve its expression level in E. coli. Investigation of the donor substrate specificity of the N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase activities of P. multocida heparosan synthase 2 (PmHS2) and E. coli K5 KfiA indicates the substrate promiscuities of PmHS2 and KfiA. Overall, both PmHS2 and KfiA can use uridine 5'-diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) and some of its C2'- and C6'-derivatives as donor substrates for their α1-4-GlcNAcT activities. Nevertheless, PmHS2 has a broader tolerance towards substrate modifications. Other than the UDP-sugars that can be used by KfiA, additional C6'-derivatives of UDP-GlcNAc, UDP-glucose, and UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine (UDP-GalNAc) are tolerable substrates for the α1-4-GlcNAcT activity of PmHS2. The substrate promiscuities of PmHS2 and KfiA will allow efficient chemoenzymatic synthesis of diverse HS and HP oligosaccharide derivatives which may have improved or altered activities compared to their natural counterparts.

Nickel-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura couplings in green solvents.

The nickel-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of aryl halides and phenol-derived substrates with aryl boronic acids using green solvents, such as 2-Me-THF and tert-amyl alcohol, is reported. This methodology employs the commercially available and air-stable precatalyst, NiCl2(PCy3)2, and gives biaryl products in synthetically useful to excellent yields. Using this protocol, bis(heterocyclic) frameworks can be assembled efficiently.

Nickel-catalyzed amination of aryl sulfamates and carbamates using an air-stable precatalyst.

A facile nickel-catalyzed method to achieve the amination of synthetically useful aryl sulfamates and carbamates is reported. Contrary to most Ni-catalyzed amination reactions, this user-friendly approach relies on an air-stable Ni(II) precatalyst, which, when employed with a mild reducing agent, efficiently delivers aminated products in good to excellent yields. The scope of the method is broad with respect to both coupling partners and includes heterocyclic substrates.

One-pot three-enzyme synthesis of UDP-GlcNAc derivatives.

A Pasteurella multocida N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (PmGlmU) was cloned and used efficiently with an N-acetylhexosamine 1-kinase (NahK_ATCC55813) and an inorganic pyrophosphatase (PmPpA) for one-pot three-enzyme synthesis of UDP-GlcNAc derivatives with or without further chemical diversification.