Monoclonal Antibody-Based Biosensor for Point-of-Care Detection of Type III Secretion System Expressing Pathogens.

It is predicted that the antibiotic resistance crisis will result in an annual death rate of 10 million people by the year 2050. To grapple with the challenges of the impending crisis, there is an urgent need for novel and rapid diagnostic tools. In this study, we developed a novel monoclonal antibody-named mAb-EspB-B7-that targets the EspB protein, a component within the bacterial type 3 secretion system (T3SS), which is mainly expressed in Gram-negative pathogens and is essential for bacterial infectivity. We found that mAb-EspB-B7 has high affinity and specificity toward recombinant and native EspB proteins; is stable over a range of pH levels, temperatures, and salt concentrations; and retains its functionality in human serum. We identified the epitope for mAb-EspB-B7 and validated it by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Since this epitope is conserved across several T3SS-harboring pathogens, mAb-EspB-B7 holds great potential for development as an active component in precise and rapid diagnostic tools that can differentiate between commensal and pathogenic bacterial strains. To this end, we integrated the well-characterized monoclonal antibody into an electrochemical biosensor and demonstrated its high specificity and sensitivity capabilities in detecting pathogenic bacterial T3SS-associated antigens as well as intact bacteria. We foresee that in the near future it will be possible to design and develop a point-of-care biosensor with multiplexing capabilities for the detection of a panel of pathogenic bacteria.

MicroRNAs Affect Complement Regulator Expression and Mitochondrial Activity to Modulate Cell Resistance to Complement-Dependent Cytotoxicity.

MicroRNAs (miR) are small RNA molecules that shape the cell transcriptome and proteome through regulation of mRNA stability and translation. Here, we examined their function as determinants of cell resistance to complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). To achieve this goal, we compared the expression of microRNAs between complement-resistant and -sensitive K562 leukemia, Raji lymphoma, and HCT-116 colorectal carcinoma cells. Global microRNA array analysis identified miR-150, miR-328, and miR-616 as regulators of CDC resistance. Inhibition of miR-150 reduced resistance, whereas inhibition of miR-328 or miR-616 enhanced cell resistance. Treatment of K562 cells with a sublytic dose of complement was shown to rapidly increase miR-150, miR-328, and miR-616 expression. Protein targets of these microRNAs were analyzed in K562 cells by mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Expression of the complement membrane regulatory proteins CD46 and CD59 was significantly enhanced after inhibition of miR-328 and miR-616. Enrichment of proteins of mitochondria, known target organelles in CDC, was observed after miR-150, miR-328, and miR-616 inhibition. In conclusion, miR-150, miR-328, and miR-616 regulate cell resistance to CDC by modifying the expression of the membrane complement regulators CD46 and CD59 and the response of the mitochondria to complement lytic attack. These microRNAs may be considered targets for intervention in complement-associated diseases and in anticancer, complement-based therapy.

Antibody-based nanotechnology.

Antibodies are considered the hallmark of the adaptive immune system in that they mediate various key biological functions, such as direct neutralization and recruitment of effector immune cells to eliminate invading pathogens. Antibodies exhibit several unique properties, including high diversity (enabling binding to a wide range of targets), high specificity and structural integrity. These properties and the understanding that antibodies can be utilized in a wide range of applications have motivated the scientific community to develop new approaches for antibody repertoire analysis and rapid monoclonal antibody discovery. Today, antibodies are key modules in the pharmaceutical and diagnostic industries. By virtue of their high affinity and specificity to their targets and the availability of technologies to engineer different antibodies to a wide range of targets, antibodies have become the most promising natural biological molecules in a range of biotechnological applications, such as: highly specific and sensitive nanobiosensors for the diagnostics of different biomarkers; nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery systems to certain cells or tissues; and nanomachines, which are nanoscale mechanical devices that enable energy conversion into precise mechanical motions in response to specific molecular inputs. In this review, we start by describing the unique properties of antibodies, how antibody diversity is generated, and the available technologies for antibody repertoire analysis and antibody discovery. Thereafter, we provide an overview of some antibody-based nanotechnologies and discuss novel and promising approaches for the application of antibodies in the nanotechnology field. Overall, we aim to bridge the knowledge gap between the nanotechnology and antibody engineering disciplines by demonstrating how technological advances in the antibody field can be leveraged to develop and/or enhance new technological approaches in the nanotechnology field.

Complement triggers relocation of Mortalin/GRP75 from mitochondria to the plasma membrane.

Mortalin/GRP75 is a ubiquitously expressed mitochondrial chaperon that is overexpressed in cancer. Mortalin protects cells from complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) and facilitates elimination of the complement C5b-9 complexes from the cell surface. We performed a nanoscopical study aimed at imaging the distribution of the C5b-9 complexes in the plasma membrane and the postulated relocation of mortalin from the mitochondria to the plasma membrane. To gain a resolution of 35nm, the locations of the C5b-9 complex and mortalin were imaged with a STED (Stimulated Emission Depletion) microscope at sub-diffraction resolution. Early changes in the spatial distribution of the C5b-9 on the cell surface are described. Juxtaposition of the labeled mortalin and C5b-9 at the plasma membrane region within minutes after complement attack is evident. Microscopical analysis of the distribution of mortalin in the vicinity of the mitochondria of complement-treated cells shows a more diffused pattern relative to control cells, proposing exit of mortalin from the mitochondria in response to complement-induced stress. In support, analysis of cytoplasmic mortalin by immunoblotting shows enhanced level of mortalin in the cytoplasm in complement-treated cells. Our data demonstrates that cells can sense complement activation at the plasma membrane and in response, swiftly send mortalin to this region in order to deactivate it.

Regulation of Complement-Dependent Cytotoxicity by MicroRNAs miR-200b, miR-200c, and miR-217.

The impact of microRNAs (miRNAs) known to regulate numerous biologic processes on complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) was investigated in K562 cells. The C5b-9 complex is the executioner of CDC. Cells protect themselves from CDC by C5b-9 elimination, a process involving the mitochondrial chaperone mortalin/GRP75. Potential miR-200 (b and c) and miR-217 regulatory sites were identified in mortalin mRNA. Overexpression of miR-200b/c or miR-217 lowered the expression of mortalin mRNA. miRNA inhibitors for miR-200b, miR-200c, or miR-217 enhanced mortalin mRNA level. Unexpectedly, these miRNA modulators had no significant effect on mortalin protein level. Metabolic labeling analysis demonstrated that, to compensate for reduction in mortalin mRNA level, the cells increased the rate of synthesis of mortalin protein. Cells overexpressing miR-200b/c or miR-217 showed reduced sensitivity to CDC, whereas inhibition of miR-200c and miR-217 enhanced cell death. miR-200b/c overexpression reduced C5b-9 binding and enhanced its release from the cells and promoted mortalin relocation to the plasma membrane. Inhibition of miR-200 (b and c) and miR-217 had no effect on the expression level of the membrane complement-regulatory proteins CD46, CD55, and CD59. However, overexpression of miR-200b/c or miR-217 enhanced expression of CD46 and CD55 (not of CD59). Overall, the data demonstrate miRNA regulation of cell sensitivity to CDC. We identified miR-200b, miR-200c, and miR-217 as regulators of mortalin and, perhaps indirectly, of CD46 and CD55. Cell exposure to a sublytic dose of complement was shown to increase expression of miR-200 (b and c), suggesting that complement C5b-9 exerts a feedback-regulatory effect on these miRNAs.