Synaptic vesicle release regulates pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte-axon interactions in a neuron subtype-specific manner.

Oligodendrocyte-lineage cells are central nervous system (CNS) glia that perform multiple functions including the selective myelination of some but not all axons. During myelination, synaptic vesicle release from axons promotes sheath stabilization and growth on a subset of neuron subtypes. In comparison, it is unknown if pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte process extensions selectively interact with specific neural circuits or axon subtypes, and whether the formation and stabilization of these neuron-glia interactions involves synaptic vesicle release. In this study, we used fluorescent reporters in the larval zebrafish model to track pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with spinal axons utilizing in vivo imaging. Monitoring motile oligodendrocyte processes and their interactions with individually labeled axons revealed that synaptic vesicle release regulates the behavior of subsets of process extensions. Specifically, blocking synaptic vesicle release decreased the longevity of oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with reticulospinal axons. Furthermore, blocking synaptic vesicle release increased the frequency that new interactions formed and retracted. In contrast, tracking the movements of all process extensions of singly-labeled oligodendrocytes revealed that synaptic vesicle release does not regulate overall process motility or exploratory behavior. Blocking synaptic vesicle release influenced the density of oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with reticulospinal and serotonergic axons, but not commissural interneuron or dopaminergic axons. Taken together, these data indicate that alterations to synaptic vesicle release cause changes to oligodendrocyte-axon interactions that are neuron subtype specific.

A low-cost smartphone fluorescence microscope for research, life science education, and STEM outreach.

Much of our understanding of cell and tissue development, structure, and function stems from fluorescence microscopy. The acquisition of colorful and glowing images engages and excites users ranging from seasoned microscopists to STEM students. Fluorescence microscopes range in cost from several thousand to several hundred thousand US dollars. Therefore, the use of fluorescence microscopy is typically limited to well-funded institutions and biotechnology companies, research core facilities, and medical laboratories, but is financially impractical at many universities and colleges, primary and secondary schools (K-12), and in science outreach settings. In this study, we developed and characterized components that when used in combination with a smartphone or tablet, perform fluorescence microscopy at a cost of less than $50 US dollars per unit. We re-purposed recreational LED flashlights and theater stage lighting filters to enable viewing of green and red fluorophores including EGFP, DsRed, mRFP, and mCherry on a simple-to-build frame made of wood and plexiglass. These devices, which we refer to as glowscopes, were capable of 10 µm resolution, imaging fluorescence in live specimens, and were compatible with all smartphone and tablet models we tested. In comparison to scientific-grade fluorescence microscopes, glowscopes may have limitations to sensitivity needed to detect dim fluorescence and the inability to resolve subcellular structures. We demonstrate capability of viewing fluorescence within zebrafish embryos, including heart rate, rhythmicity, and regional anatomy of the central nervous system. Due to the low cost of individual glowscope units, we anticipate this device can help to equip K-12, undergraduate, and science outreach classrooms with fleets of fluorescence microscopes that can engage students with hands-on learning activities.

Evolutionary Origins of the Oligodendrocyte Cell Type and Adaptive Myelination.

Oligodendrocytes are multifunctional central nervous system (CNS) glia that are essential for neural function in gnathostomes. The evolutionary origins and specializations of the oligodendrocyte cell type are among the many remaining mysteries in glial biology and neuroscience. The role of oligodendrocytes as CNS myelinating glia is well established, but recent studies demonstrate that oligodendrocytes also participate in several myelin-independent aspects of CNS development, function, and maintenance. Furthermore, many recent studies have collectively advanced our understanding of myelin plasticity, and it is now clear that experience-dependent adaptations to myelination are an additional form of neural plasticity. These observations beg the questions of when and for which functions the ancestral oligodendrocyte cell type emerged, when primitive oligodendrocytes evolved new functionalities, and the genetic changes responsible for these evolutionary innovations. Here, I review recent findings and propose working models addressing the origins and evolution of the oligodendrocyte cell type and adaptive myelination. The core gene regulatory network (GRN) specifying the oligodendrocyte cell type is also reviewed as a means to probe the existence of oligodendrocytes in basal vertebrates and chordate invertebrates.

Identification of 3' UTR motifs required for mRNA localization to myelin sheaths in vivo.

Myelin is a specialized membrane produced by oligodendrocytes that insulates and supports axons. Oligodendrocytes extend numerous cellular processes, as projections of the plasma membrane, and simultaneously wrap multiple layers of myelin membrane around target axons. Notably, myelin sheaths originating from the same oligodendrocyte are variable in size, suggesting local mechanisms regulate myelin sheath growth. Purified myelin contains ribosomes and hundreds of mRNAs, supporting a model that mRNA localization and local protein synthesis regulate sheath growth and maturation. However, the mechanisms by which mRNAs are selectively enriched in myelin sheaths are unclear. To investigate how mRNAs are targeted to myelin sheaths, we tested the hypothesis that transcripts are selected for myelin enrichment through consensus sequences in the 3' untranslated region (3' UTR). Using methods to visualize mRNA in living zebrafish larvae, we identified candidate 3' UTRs that were sufficient to localize mRNA to sheaths and enriched near growth zones of nascent membrane. We bioinformatically identified motifs common in 3' UTRs from 3 myelin-enriched transcripts and determined that these motifs are required and sufficient in a context-dependent manner for mRNA transport to myelin sheaths. Finally, we show that 1 motif is highly enriched in the myelin transcriptome, suggesting that this sequence is a global regulator of mRNA localization during developmental myelination.

Individual neuronal subtypes control initial myelin sheath growth and stabilization.

BACKGROUND: In the developing central nervous system, pre-myelinating oligodendrocytes sample candidate nerve axons by extending and retracting process extensions. Some contacts stabilize, leading to the initiation of axon wrapping, nascent myelin sheath formation, concentric wrapping and sheath elongation, and sheath stabilization or pruning by oligodendrocytes. Although axonal signals influence the overall process of myelination, the precise oligodendrocyte behaviors that require signaling from axons are not completely understood. In this study, we investigated whether oligodendrocyte behaviors during the early events of myelination are mediated by an oligodendrocyte-intrinsic myelination program or are over-ridden by axonal factors. METHODS: To address this, we utilized in vivo time-lapse imaging in embryonic and larval zebrafish spinal cord during the initial hours and days of axon wrapping and myelination. Transgenic reporter lines marked individual axon subtypes or oligodendrocyte membranes. RESULTS: In the larval zebrafish spinal cord, individual axon subtypes supported distinct nascent sheath growth rates and stabilization frequencies. Oligodendrocytes ensheathed individual axon subtypes at different rates during a two-day period after initial axon wrapping. When descending reticulospinal axons were ablated, local spinal axons supported a constant ensheathment rate despite the increased ratio of oligodendrocytes to target axons. CONCLUSION: We conclude that properties of individual axon subtypes instruct oligodendrocyte behaviors during initial stages of myelination by differentially controlling nascent sheath growth and stabilization.

Development of an Embryonic Zebrafish Oligodendrocyte-Neuron Mixed Coculture System.

During vertebrate neural development, oligodendrocytes insulate nerve axons with myelin sheaths. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged as a useful model organism for studying oligodendrocyte development. However, the absence of an in vitro culture system necessitates in vivo manipulations and analyses, which, in some instances, limits the questions that can be addressed. To fill this gap we developed a mixed coculture system for embryonic zebrafish neurons and oligodendrocyte-lineage cells. Cultures harvested from embryos ≥30 hours postfertilization (hpf) yielded oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) positive for olig2 and sox10 transgenic reporters. Cultured OPCs exhibited dynamic, exploratory membrane processes, and cell morphologies resembled those established in vivo. Cells harvested from advanced stage embryos possessed more arborized processes than those from early stage embryos. Advanced stage (>60 hpf) embryo culture produced differentiated, mbp+ oligodendrocytes. Genetically tractable neuron subtypes extended neurites when harvested from embryos ≥19 hpf. Coculture produced juxtaposed oligodendrocytes and neurons, demonstrating the practical usefulness of this technique for future studies examining axon-oligodendrocyte interactions under defined conditions. We expect that zebrafish oligodendrocyte culture will complement existing in vivo strengths and may facilitate future studies elucidating the mechanisms of oligodendrocyte specification, proliferation, differentiation, motility, and axon-oligodendrocyte interactions that shape adult myelination patterns.

Sequential specification of oligodendrocyte lineage cells by distinct levels of Hedgehog and Notch signaling.

During development of the central nervous system oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) give rise to both myelinating oligodendrocytes and NG2 glia, which are the most proliferative cells in the adult mammalian brain. NG2 glia retain characteristics of OPCs, and some NG2 glia produce oligodendrocytes, but many others persist throughout adulthood. Why some OPCs differentiate as oligodendrocytes during development whereas others persist as OPCs and acquire characteristics of NG2 glia is not known. Using zebrafish spinal cord as a model, we found that OPCs that differentiate rapidly as oligodendrocytes and others that remain as OPCs arise in sequential waves from distinct neural progenitors. Additionally, oligodendrocyte and persistent OPC fates are specified during a defined critical period by small differences in Shh signaling and Notch activity, which modulates Shh signaling response. Thus, our data indicate that OPCs fated to produce oligodendrocytes or remain as OPCs during development are specified as distinct cell types, raising the possibility that the myelinating potential of OPCs is set by graded Shh signaling activity.

Neuronal activity biases axon selection for myelination in vivo.

An essential feature of vertebrate neural development is ensheathment of axons with myelin, an insulating membrane formed by oligodendrocytes. Not all axons are myelinated, but mechanisms directing myelination of specific axons are unknown. Using zebrafish, we found that activity-dependent secretion stabilized myelin sheath formation on select axons. When VAMP2-dependent exocytosis was silenced in single axons, oligodendrocytes preferentially ensheathed neighboring axons. Nascent sheaths formed on silenced axons were shorter in length, but when activity of neighboring axons was also suppressed, inhibition of sheath growth was relieved. Using in vivo time-lapse microscopy, we found that only 25% of oligodendrocyte processes that initiated axon wrapping were stabilized during normal development and that initiation did not require activity. Instead, oligodendrocyte processes wrapping silenced axons retracted more frequently. We propose that axon selection for myelination results from excessive and indiscriminate initiation of wrapping followed by refinement that is biased by activity-dependent secretion from axons.

Mutation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA synthase I reveals requirements for isoprenoid and cholesterol synthesis in oligodendrocyte migration arrest, axon wrapping, and myelin gene expression.

Myelin membrane, which ensheaths axons, has an unusually high amount of cholesterol. Cholesterol influences membrane fluidity and assembles lipid-rich microdomains within membranes, and some studies have shown that cholesterol is important for myelination. How cholesterol influences the development and differentiation of oligodendrocytes, glial cells that make myelin, is not known nor is clear whether isoprenoids, which also are products of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway, contribute to myelination. Through a forward genetic screen in zebrafish we discovered that mutation of hmgcs1, which encodes an enzyme necessary for isoprenoid and cholesterol synthesis, causes oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) to migrate past their target axons and to fail to express myelin genes. Drawing on a combination of pharmacological inhibitor and rescue experiments, we provide evidence that isoprenoids and protein prenylation, but not cholesterol, are required in OPCs to halt their migration at target axons. On the other hand, cholesterol, but not isoprenoids, is necessary both for axon ensheathment and myelin gene expression. Our data reveal that different products of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway have distinct roles in oligodendrocyte development and that they together help to coordinate directed migration, axon wrapping, and gene expression.

Single vesicle imaging indicates distinct modes of rapid membrane retrieval during nerve growth.

BACKGROUND: During nerve growth, cytoplasmic vesicles add new membrane preferentially to the growth cone located at the distal tip of extending axons. Growth cone membrane is also retrieved locally, and asymmetric retrieval facilitates membrane remodeling during growth cone repulsion by a chemorepellent gradient. Moreover, growth inhibitory factors can stimulate bulk membrane retrieval and induce growth cone collapse. Despite these functional insights, the processes mediating local membrane remodeling during axon extension remain poorly defined. RESULTS: To investigate the spatial and temporal dynamics of membrane retrieval in actively extending growth cones, we have used a transient labeling and optical recording method that can resolve single vesicle events. Live-cell confocal imaging revealed rapid membrane retrieval by distinct endocytic modes based on spatial distribution in Xenopus spinal neuron growth cones. These modes include endocytic "hot-spots" triggered at the base of filopodia, at the lateral margins of lamellipodia, and along dorsal ridges of the growth cone. Additionally, waves of endocytosis were induced when individual filopodia detached from the substrate and fused with the growth cone dorsal surface or with other filopodia. Vesicle formation at sites of membrane remodeling by self-contact required F-actin polymerization. Moreover, bulk membrane retrieval by macroendocytosis correlated positively with the substrate-dependent rate of axon extension and required the function of Rho-family GTPases. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides insight into the dynamic membrane remodeling processes essential for nerve growth by identifying several distinct modes of rapid membrane retrieval in the growth cone during axon extension. We found that endocytic membrane retrieval is intensified at specific subdomains and may drive the dynamic membrane ruffling and re-absorption of filopodia and lamellipodia in actively extending growth cones. The findings offer a platform for determining the molecular mechanisms of distinct endocytic processes that may remodel the surface distribution of receptors, ion channels and other membrane-associated proteins locally to drive growth cone extension and chemotactic guidance.

Bidirectional remodeling of ß1-integrin adhesions during chemotropic regulation of nerve growth.

BACKGROUND: Chemotropic factors in the extracellular microenvironment guide nerve growth by acting on the growth cone located at the tip of extending axons. Growth cone extension requires the coordination of cytoskeleton-dependent membrane protrusion and dynamic adhesion to the extracellular matrix, yet how chemotropic factors regulate these events remains an outstanding question. We demonstrated previously that the inhibitory factor myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) triggers endocytic removal of the adhesion receptor ß1-integrin from the growth cone surface membrane to negatively remodel substrate adhesions during chemorepulsion. Here, we tested how a neurotrophin might affect integrin adhesions. RESULTS: We report that brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) positively regulates the formation of substrate adhesions in axonal growth cones during stimulated outgrowth and prevents removal of ß1-integrin adhesions by MAG. Treatment of Xenopus spinal neurons with BDNF rapidly triggered ß1-integrin clustering and induced the dynamic formation of nascent vinculin-containing adhesion complexes in the growth cone periphery. Both the formation of nascent ß1-integrin adhesions and the stimulation of axon extension by BDNF required cytoplasmic calcium ion signaling and integrin activation at the cell surface. Exposure to MAG decreased the number of ß1-integrin adhesions in the growth cone during inhibition of axon extension. In contrast, the BDNF-induced adhesions were resistant to negative remodeling by MAG, correlating with the ability of BDNF pretreatment to counteract MAG-inhibition of axon extension. Pre-exposure to MAG prevented the BDNF-induced formation of ß1-integrin adhesions and blocked the stimulation of axon extension by BDNF. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, these findings demonstrate the neurotrophin-dependent formation of integrin-based adhesions in the growth cone and reveal how a positive regulator of substrate adhesions can block the negative remodeling and growth inhibitory effects of MAG. Such bidirectional remodeling may allow the growth cone to rapidly adjust adhesiveness to the extracellular matrix as a general mechanism for governing axon extension. Techniques for manipulating integrin internalization and activation state may be important for overcoming local inhibitory factors after traumatic injury or neurodegenerative disease to enhance regenerative nerve growth.

Second messengers and membrane trafficking direct and organize growth cone steering.

Graded distributions of extracellular cues guide developing axons toward their targets. A network of second messengers - Ca(2+) and cyclic nucleotides - shapes cue-derived information into either attractive or repulsive signals that steer growth cones bidirectionally. Emerging evidence suggests that such guidance signals create a localized imbalance between exocytosis and endocytosis, which in turn redirects membrane, adhesion and cytoskeletal components asymmetrically across the growth cone to bias the direction of axon extension. These recent advances allow us to propose a unifying model of how the growth cone translates shallow gradients of environmental information into polarized activity of the steering machinery for axon guidance.

Asymmetric endocytosis and remodeling of beta1-integrin adhesions during growth cone chemorepulsion by MAG.

Gradients of chemorepellent factors released from myelin may impair axon pathfinding and neuroregeneration after injury. We found that, analogously to the process of chemotaxis in invasive tumor cells, axonal growth cones of Xenopus spinal neurons modulate the functional distribution of integrin receptors during chemorepulsion induced by myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG). A focal MAG gradient induced polarized endocytosis and concomitant asymmetric loss of beta(1)-integrin and vinculin-containing adhesions on the repellent side during repulsive turning. Loss of symmetrical beta(1)-integrin function was both necessary and sufficient for chemorepulsion, which required internalization by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Induction of repulsive Ca(2+) signals was necessary and sufficient for the stimulated rapid endocytosis of beta(1)-integrin. Altogether, these findings identify beta(1)-integrin as an important functional cargo during Ca(2+)-dependent rapid endocytosis stimulated by a diffusible guidance cue. Such dynamic redistribution allows the growth cone to rapidly adjust adhesiveness across its axis, an essential feature for initiating chemotactic turning.

Identification of potential protein interactors of Lrrk2.

Pathogenic substitutions in the Lrrk2 protein have been shown to be an important cause of both familial and sporadic parkinsonism. The molecular pathway involved in Lrrk2 dopaminergic neuron degeneration remains elusive. Employing a combination of Lrrk2-mediated protein precipitation and tandem mass spectrometry, we identified 14 potential Lrrk2 binding partners. The majority of these interactions may be subgrouped into three functional cellular pathways: (i) chaperone-mediated response, (ii) proteins associated with the cytoskeleton and trafficking and (iii) phosphorylation and kinase activity. Future investigation of these candidates is now warranted and may help resolve the pathomechanism behind Lrrk2 neurodegeneration.