Regulatory T Cells Promote Natural Killer Cell Education in Mixed Chimeras.

Therapeutic administration of regulatory T cells (Tregs) leads to engraftment of conventional doses of allogeneic bone marrow (BM) in nonirradiated recipient mice conditioned with costimulation blockade and mammalian target of rapamycin inhibition. The mode of action responsible for this Treg effect is poorly understood but may encompass the control of costimulation blockade-resistant natural killer (NK) cells. We show that transient NK cell depletion at the time of BM transplantation led to BM engraftment and persistent chimerism without Treg transfer but failed to induce skin graft tolerance. In contrast, the permanent absence of anti-donor NK reactivity in mice grafted with F1 BM was associated with both chimerism and tolerance comparable to Treg therapy, implying that NK cell tolerization is a critical mechanism of Treg therapy. Indeed, NK cells of Treg-treated BM recipients reshaped their receptor repertoire in the presence of donor MHC in a manner suggesting attenuated donor reactivity. These results indicate that adoptively transferred Tregs prevent BM rejection, at least in part, by suppressing NK cells and promote tolerance by regulating the appearance of NK cells expressing activating receptors to donor class I MHC.

Efficient phosphine-mediated formal C(sp3)-C(sp3) coupling reactions of alkyl halides in batch and flow.

The construction of C(sp3)-C(sp3) bond is an essential chemical transformation in synthetic chemistry due to its abundance in organic scaffolds. Here we demonstrate a valuable adaptation of the Wittig-type chemical procedure to efficiently facilitate C(sp3)-C(sp3) bond formation utilizing a range of alkyl building blocks. Additionally the method is amenable with flow synthesis to afford coupled products in good to excellent yields without laborious purification process.

The Immunosuppressive Effect of CTLA4 Immunoglobulin Is Dependent on Regulatory T Cells at Low But Not High Doses.

B7.1/2-targeted costimulation blockade (CTLA4 immunoglobulin [CTLA4-Ig]) is available for immunosuppression after kidney transplantation, but its potentially detrimental impact on regulatory T cells (Tregs) is of concern. We investigated the effects of CTLA4-Ig monotherapy in a fully mismatched heart transplant model (BALB/c onto C57BL/6). CTLA4-Ig was injected chronically (on days 0, 4, 14, and 28 and every 4 weeks thereafter) in dosing regimens paralleling clinical use, shown per mouse: low dose (LD), 0.25 mg (≈10 mg/kg body weight); high dose (HD), 1.25 mg (≈50 mg/kg body weight); and very high dose (VHD), 6.25 mg (≈250 mg/kg body weight). Chronic CTLA4-Ig therapy showed dose-dependent efficacy, with the LD regimen prolonging graft survival and with the HD and VHD regimens leading to >95% long-term graft survival and preserved histology. CTLA4-Ig's effect was immunosuppressive rather than tolerogenic because treatment cessation after ≈3 mo led to rejection. FoxP3-positive Tregs were reduced in naïve mice to a similar degree, independent of the CTLA4-Ig dose, but recovered to normal values in heart recipients under chronic CTLA4-Ig therapy. Treg depletion (anti-CD25) resulted in an impaired outcome under LD therapy but had no detectable effect under HD therapy. Consequently, the immunosuppressive effect of partially effective LD CTLA4-Ig therapy is impaired when Tregs are removed, whereas CTLA4-Ig monotherapy at higher doses effectively maintains graft survival independent of Tregs.

Anti-OX40L alone or in combination with anti-CD40L and CTLA4Ig does not inhibit the humoral and cellular response to a major grass pollen allergen.

BACKGROUND: IgE-mediated allergy is a common disease characterized by a harmful immune response towards otherwise harmless environmental antigens. Induction of specific immunological non-responsiveness towards allergens would be a desirable goal. Blockade of costimulatory pathways is a promising strategy to modulate the immune response in an antigen-specific manner. Recently, OX40 (CD134) was identified as a costimulatory receptor important in Th2-mediated immune responses. Moreover, synergy between OX40 blockade and 'conventional' costimulation blockade (anti-CD40L, CTLA4Ig) was observed in models of alloimmunity. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the potential of interfering with OX40 alone or in combination with CD40/CD28 signals to influence the allergic immune response. METHODS: The OX40 pathway was investigated in an established murine model of IgE-mediated allergy where BALB/c mice are repeatedly immunized with the clinically relevant grass pollen allergen Phl p 5. Groups were treated with combinations of anti-OX40L, CTLA4Ig and anti-CD40L. In selected mice, Tregs were depleted with anti-CD25. RESULTS: Blockade of OX40L alone at the time of first or second immunization did not modulate the allergic response on the humoral or effector cell levels but slightly on T cell responses. Administration of a combination of anti-CD40L/CTLA4Ig delayed the allergic immune response, but antibody production could not be inhibited after repeated immunization even though the allergen-specific T cell response was suppressed in the long run. Notably, additional blockade of OX40L had no detectable supplementary effect. Immunomodulation partly involved regulatory T cells as depletion of CD25(+) cells led to restored T cell proliferation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Collectively, our data provide evidence that the allergic immune response towards Phl p 5 is independent of OX40L, although reduction on T cell responses and slightly on the asthmatic phenotype was detectable. Besides, no relevant synergistic effect of OX40L blockade in addition to CD40L/CD28 blockade could be detected. Thus, the therapeutic potential of OX40L blockade for IgE-mediated allergy appears to be ineffective in this setting.

Rapamycin and CTLA4Ig synergize to induce stable mixed chimerism without the need for CD40 blockade.

The mixed chimerism approach achieves donor-specific tolerance in organ transplantation, but clinical use is inhibited by the toxicities of current bone marrow (BM) transplantation (BMT) protocols. Blocking the CD40:CD154 pathway with anti-CD154 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is exceptionally potent in inducing mixed chimerism, but these mAbs are clinically not available. Defining the roles of donor and recipient CD40 in a murine allogeneic BMT model, we show that CD4 or CD8 activation through an intact direct or CD4 T cell activation through the indirect pathway is sufficient to trigger BM rejection despite CTLA4Ig treatment. In the absence of CD4 T cells, CD8 T cell activation via the direct pathway, in contrast, leads to a state of split tolerance. Interruption of the CD40 signals in both the direct and indirect pathway of allorecognition or lack of recipient CD154 is required for the induction of chimerism and tolerance. We developed a novel BMT protocol that induces mixed chimerism and donor-specific tolerance to fully mismatched cardiac allografts relying on CD28 costimulation blockade and mTOR inhibition without targeting the CD40 pathway. Notably, MHC-mismatched/minor antigen-matched skin grafts survive indefinitely whereas fully mismatched grafts are rejected, suggesting that non-MHC antigens cause graft rejection and split tolerance.

Donor CD4 T cells trigger costimulation blockade-resistant donor bone marrow rejection through bystander activation requiring IL-6.

Bone marrow (BM) transplantation under costimulation blockade induces chimerism and tolerance. Cotransplantation of donor T cells (contained in substantial numbers in mobilized peripheral blood stem cells and donor lymphocyte infusions) together with donor BM paradoxically triggers rejection of donor BM through undefined mechanisms. Here, nonmyeloablatively irradiated C57BL/6 recipients simultaneously received donor BM (BALB/c) and donor T cells under costimulation blockade (anti-CD154 and CTLA4Ig). Donor CD4, but not CD8 cells, triggered natural killer-independent donor BM rejection which was associated with increased production of IL-6, interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-17A. BM rejection was prevented through neutralization of IL-6, but not of IFN-γ or IL-17A. IL-6 counteracted the antiproliferative effect of anti-CD154 in vitro. Rapamycin and anti-lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 negated this effect of IL-6 in vitro and prevented BM rejection in vivo. Simultaneous cotransplantation of (BALB/cxB6)F1, recipient or irradiated donor CD4 cells, or late transfer of donor CD4 cells did not lead to BM rejection, whereas cotransplantation of third party CD4 cells did. Transferred donor CD4 cells became activated, rapidly underwent apoptosis and triggered activation and proliferation of recipient T cells. Collectively, these results provide evidence that donor T cells recognizing the recipient as allogeneic lead to the release of IL-6, which abolishes the effect of anti-CD154, triggering donor BM rejection through bystander activation.

Prevalence and treatment strategies of dyskinesia in patients with Parkinson's disease.

A study into the prevalence and treatment of dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients was performed with 380 PD specialists' completed interviews relating to PD and retrospectively completed 1900 patient record forms for patients with dyskinesia. Physicians reported, that 34% of their PD patients experience dyskinesia, 57% of dyskinetic PD patients were affected by moderately-to-completely disabling dyskinesia. Treatment of dyskinesia was looked upon as not satisfactory, fractionating of levodopa dose was used as first choice therapeutic option of dyskinesia.

Correlation of plasma concentrations of cystatin C and creatinine to inulin clearance in a pediatric population.

Measurement of blood concentrations of cystatin C (cysC), a cysteine protease inhibitor present in human plasma, has been suggested for use as an indicator of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in a manner analogous to the use of plasma creatinine (SCR). In this study, cysC and SCR were measured in plasma from pediatric patients (4-19 years) with renal disease for whom a "gold standard" measurement of GFR via inulin clearance (C(IN)) was available. The data analyses were divided into two age groups: group A (4-12 years, n = 26) and group B (12-19 years, n = 34). For both age groups, the linear correlation coefficient of [cysC](-1) vs C(IN) (mL/min/1.73 m2) (r = 0.765 for group A and r = 0.869 for group B) was less than that of the linear correlation coefficient of [SCR](-1) vs C(IN) (r = 0.841 for group A and r = 0.892 for group B). As a single measurement for detection of abnormal GFR, however, the optimum receiver-operator characteristic point for cysC measurement (for group A at cysC >1.2 mg/L, sensitivity = 80%, specificity = 91%; and for group B at cysC >1.4 mg/L, sensitivity = 87%, specificity = 100%) was numerically superior to that for SCR measurement (for group A at SCR >8.0 mg/L, sensitivity = 67%, specificity = 100%; and for group B at SCR >9.0 mg/L, sensitivity = 91%, specificity = 91%), using a reference value for normal GFR of C(IN) > 90 mL/min/1.73 m2. However, these differences were not statistically significant. CysC measurement appears to be broadly equivalent to SCR measurement for estimation of GFR in pediatric patients.

HPLC method for monitoring SDZ PSC 833 in whole blood.

P-glycoprotein (Pgp) is a 170-kDa membrane transporter that mediates drug efflux and is an effector of multidrug resistance. SDZ PSC 833 (PSC), a nonimmunosuppressive cyclosporine that potently modulates Pgp, is currently under clinical evaluation in patients with cancer. We have developed a reversed-phase HPLC assay for determining PSC blood concentrations that utilizes a step gradient with linear segments to resolve PSC into two distinct peaks (likely to be keto and enol isomers). To clinically validate the assay, PSC concentrations were obtained by HPLC from nine patients receiving oral doses of 5 mg/kg every 6 h. Values ranged from 0.91 to 5.4 mg/L during the dosing period, comparable with concentrations of PSC that modulate Pgp in vitro. In addition, we investigated the immunoreactivity of the Abbott TDx cyclosporin A (CsA) monoclonal whole-blood assay for PSC. The TDx CsA assay cross-reacts approximately 17% with PSC as determined by adding known amounts of PSC to whole blood. When PSC concentrations obtained by the TDx CsA assay were divided by 0.17, we found agreement between the TDx CsA assay and the HPLC PSC assay for samples from nine patients.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation of high-dose etoposide phosphate after a 2-hour infusion in patients with solid tumors.

Etoposide phosphate, a water soluble prodrug of etoposide, was evaluated at levels potentially useful in transplantation settings in patients with malignancies. For pharmacokinetic studies of etoposide phosphate in this phase I study, 21 patients with solid tumors were treated with etoposide phosphate given as etoposide equivalents of 250, 500, 750, 1000 and 1200 mg/m2 infused over 2 h on days 1 and 2, and G-CSF 5 micrograms/kg per day starting on day 3 until WBC was > or = 10,000/microliters. Qualitative, quantitative, and pharmacokinetic analysis was performed as reported previously. Rapid conversion of etoposide phosphate into etoposide by dephosphorylation occurred at all dosage levels without indication of saturation of phosphatases. Plasma levels (C(pmax)) and area under the curve (AUC) of etoposide phosphate and etoposide demonstrated linear dose effects. For etoposide, plasma disposition demonstrated biphasic clearance, with mean T1/2 alpha of 2.09 +/- 0.61 h, and T1/2 beta of 5.83 +/- 1.71 h. An AUC as high as 1768.50 micrograms.h/ml was observed at a dose of 1200 mg/m2. The total body clearance (TBC) showed an overall mean of 15.72 +/- 4.25 ml/min per m2, and mean volume of distribution (VDss) of 5.64 +/- 1.06 l/m2. The mean residual time (MRT) for etoposide was 6.24 +/- 1.61 h. In urine, etoposide but not etoposide phosphate, was identified with large quantitative variations (1.83% to 33.45% of injected etoposide equivalents). These results indicate that etoposide phosphate is converted into etoposide with the linear dose-related C(pmax) and AUCs necessary for use of this agent at the high dosage levels needed in transplantation protocols. A comparison of pharmacokinetic parameters of high-dose etoposide with the values observed in our study with etoposide phosphate revealed comparable values for the clinically important C(pmax) and AUCs, clearance, terminal T1/2 and MRT. In contrast to the use of etoposide, etoposide phosphate can be delivered in aqueous vehicles and therefore may offer the advantage of ease of administration.

Clinical pharmacokinetics of amonafide (NSC 308847) in 62 patients.

Amonafide (A) demonstrates dose-related increases in area under the curve (AUC) and Cmax values. Total body clearance for A (ranging from 44.2 to 53.8 L/hr/m2) is relatively constant within the dosing range of this study. The dose-related increase of AUC was also observed for the two identified metabolites, acetylamonafide (AA) and noramonafide (NA). A and NA plasma data could be described by a four-compartmental model (two compartments for A, one compartment each for NA and AA). The fitting for NA was poor owing to its low plasma concentration. The terminal half-lives for A, NA, and AA were in the range of 3-6 hr. No cumulative accumulation of parent compound or metabolites was detected after daily administration, The concentrations of A, NA, and AA 24 hr after dosing were either below or very close to the quantitative limits of the assay. Polymorphic disposition of A was confirmed by a frequency distribution of AUC value versus dose plot.

Phase I evaluation of a water-soluble etoposide prodrug, etoposide phosphate, given as a 5-minute infusion on days 1, 3, and 5 in patients with solid tumors.

PURPOSE: To determine the toxicities, maximum-tolerated dose (MTD), and pharmacology of etoposide phosphate, a water-soluble etoposide derivative, administered as a 5-minute intravenous infusion on a schedule of days 1, 3, and 5 repeated every 21 days. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirty-six solid tumor patients with a mean age of 63 years, performance status of 0 to 1, WBC count > or = 4,000/microL, and platelet count > or = 100,000/microL, with normal hepatic and renal function were studied. Doses evaluated in etoposide equivalents were 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, and 200 mg/m2/d. Etoposide in plasma and urine and etoposide phosphate in plasma were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Eleven of 36 patients were treated with concentrated etoposide phosphate at 150 mg/m2/d. RESULTS: Grade I/II nausea, vomiting, alopecia, and fatigue were common. Leukopenia (mainly neutropenia) occurred at doses greater than 75 mg/m2, with the nadir occurring between days 15 and 19 posttreatment. All effects were reversible. Hypotension, bronchospasm, and allergic reactions were not observed in the first 25 patients. The MTD due to leukopenia was determined to be between 175 and 200 mg/m2/d. In 11 patients treated with concentrated etoposide phosphate, no local phlebitis was noted, but two patients did develop allergic phenomena. The conversion of etoposide phosphate to etoposide was not saturated in the dosages studied. Etoposide phosphate had peak plasma concentrations at 5 minutes, with a terminal half-life (t1/2) of 7 minutes. Etoposide reached peak concentrations at 7 to 8 minutes, with a t1/2 of 6 to 9 hours. Both etoposide phosphate and etoposide demonstrated dose-related linear increases in maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC). CONCLUSION: Etoposide phosphate displays excellent patient tolerance in conventional dosages when administered as a 5-minute intravenous bolus. The suggested phase II dose is 150 mg/m2 on days 1, 3, and 5. The ability to administer etoposide phosphate as a concentrated, rapid infusion may prove of value both in the outpatient clinic and in high-dose regimens.