Multiorgan failure in the serious trauma patient.

Multiorgan failure remains one of the leading causes of late morbidity and mortality after severe trauma. In the early phase, it is related with an uncontrolled hyper-inflammation state, whereas in the late phase (>72 h), septic complications play a major role. We review the underlying pathophysiology, the evaluation with different scales and the clinical factors associated with multiorgan failure, as well as potential treatment options.

Long-term follow-up of patients with post-traumatic refractory high intracranial pressure treated with lumbar drainage.

Drainage of cerebrospinal fluid by means of external lumbar drainage (ELD) is controversial in the adult population with traumatic brain injury. We report our experience with ELD in the treatment of post-traumatic high intracranial pressure (ICP) and the results of the long-term follow-up in these patients. We undertook clinical evaluation of 30 patients with traumatic brain injury and high ICP treated with second-tier measures or with first-tier measures if second-tier measures were contraindicated. The study involved a retrospective review of collected data. Outcome at intensive care unit discharge and three to five years after injury were evaluated with the Glasgow Outcome Scale. The mean age of patients was 34.9 +/- 12.5 years and 25 (83%) were male. The median (interquartile range) Glasgow Coma score was 8 (7 to 10). ICP before and one hour after ELD placement was 33.7 +/- 9.0 and 12.5 +/- 4.8 mmHg respectively, a decrease in 21.2 +/- 8.3 mmHg (P < 0.0001). ELD was placed after a mean of 8.6 +/- 3.9 days. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage was maintained for a mean of 6.6 +/- 3.5 days. Four patients (13%) required ELD replacement and one patient developed a cerebrospinal fluid infection (3%). No pupillary changes were noted within 48 hours of ELD placement. Long-term outcome was favourable (good recovery or moderate disability) in 62% of the patients studied. The use of ELD resulted in a marked decrease in ICP These patients presented a good outcome in 62% of the cases in the long-term evaluation. Few complications related with ELD use were noted.

Correlation between brain interstitial and total serum cortisol levels in traumatic brain injury. A preliminary study.

INTRODUCTION: Brain cortisol availability has never been evaluated in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Cerebral microdialysis is a well-established technique for monitoring brain metabolism in neurocritically ill patients, which may be used to measure interstitial cortisol. The objective of this preliminary study was to measure brain interstitial cortisol and its correlation with total serum cortisol in patients with TBI. METHODS: We prospectively studied 6 patients with severe TBI admitted to the Intensive Care Unit of our tertiary University Hospital in which multimodal neuromonitoring including cerebral microdialysis with a high cut-off of 100 k-Da and 20-mm long membrane was used. Serum and brain interstitial cortisol microdialysis samples were obtained every 8 h and analyzed afterwards. RESULTS: Linear regression analysis of total serum cortisol and brain interstitial cortisol in the whole population showed a moderate correlation (R2=0.538, p<0.001, no.=118). However, intra-individual correlation showed a great variability, with correlation coefficients ranging from a R2=0.091 to R2=0.680. CONCLUSION: Our prospective and preliminary study showed a moderate correlation of brain interstitial cortisol and total serum cortisol values in patients with diffuse TBI. However, intra-individual analysis showed a great variability. These results suggest that total serum cortisol may not reflect brain cortisol availability in half of TBI patients.

Contrast-enhanced transcranial color sonography in the diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the utility of constrat-enhanced transcranial color sonography (TCCS) in the diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest in cases of difficult acoustic window. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From January 2007 to July 2008, we prospectively studied 50 patients who fulfilled clinical criteria of brain death. In all cases, we performed TCCS aiming to insonate both middle cerebral arteries (MCA) and the basilar artery (BA). In those case in which insonation of any vessel was not possible, we repeated the exploration after injecting a 2.5-mL bolus of sulphurhexafluoridedispersion. Afterward, we compared the rate of insonation of the vessels and the number of conclusive studies. RESULTS: The mean patient age was 53.2 +/- 15.9 years. Thirty-two were men (64%). The most frequent neurologic injury was hemorrhagic stroke and traumatic brain injury. Contrast-enhanced TCCS resulted in an increased rate of insonation in both MCA and in BA, and in the number of conclusive studies. CONCLUSIONS: Contrast-enhanced TCCS increased the number of conclusive studies with cerebral circulatory arrest, which minimized the importance of a previous study in cases with a poor acoustic window.

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Aplicaciones del dúplex transcraneal codificado en color en la monitorización del enfermo neurocrítico / Applications of transcranial color-coded duplex sonography in monitoring neurocritical patients

La sonografía transcraneal constituye una herramienta de monitorización habitual en el paciente neurocrítico. El dúplex transcraneal codificado en color permite un estudio hemodinámico y estructural del parénquima cerebral de estos pacientes. Sus ventajas sobre la sonografía convencional son evidentes, y se deben a una visualización directa del vaso que se quiere estudiar y a un correcto ajuste del volumen de muestra y del ángulo de insonación. La utilización de ecopotenciadores supone realizar estudios concluyentes prácticamente en el 100% de los casos, y permite estudiar de modo semicuantitativo la perfusión cerebral a la cabecera del paciente. El objetivo de esta revisión es exponer las aplicaciones del dúplex transcraneal codificado en color en la monitorización del enfermo neurocrítico en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos

Transcranial sonography is a common tool for monitoring neurocritical patients. Transcranial color-coded duplex ultrasonography enables hemodynamic and structural study of the cerebral parenchyma in these patients. Its advantages over conventional ultrasonography are evident and are derived from direct visualization of the vessel to be studied and appropriate adjustment of the sample volume and angle of insonation. The use of ultrasonographic contrast agents enables conclusive findings in practically 100% of cases and allows cerebral perfusion to be studied at the bedside using semiquantitative methods. This review aims to show the applications of transcranial color-coded duplex ultrasonography for monitoring neurocritical patients in intensive care units

[Applications of transcranial color-coded duplex sonography in monitoring neurocritical patients]. / Aplicaciones del dúplex transcraneal codificado en color en la monitorización del enfermo neurocrítico.

Transcranial sonography is a common tool for monitoring neurocritical patients. Transcranial color-coded duplex ultrasonography enables hemodynamic and structural study of the cerebral parenchyma in these patients. Its advantages over conventional ultrasonography are evident and are derived from direct visualization of the vessel to be studied and appropriate adjustment of the sample volume and angle of insonation. The use of ultrasonographic contrast agents enables conclusive findings in practically 100% of cases and allows cerebral perfusion to be studied at the bedside using semiquantitative methods. This review aims to show the applications of transcranial color-coded duplex ultrasonography for monitoring neurocritical patients in intensive care units.

[Cerebral hemodynamics in patients with traumatic brain injury evaluated by transcranial Doppler and transcranial color coded sonography. A comparison study]. / Hemodinámica cerebral en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico evaluadapor doppler transcraneal y duplex transcraneal con codificación en color. Estudiocomparativo.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the number of vessels identified and mean velocity and pulsatility index values obtained by transcranial doppler (TCD) and transcranial color coded sonography (TCCS) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). METHODS: Thirty patients suffering from TBI admitted in our neurocritical Intensive Care Unit (ICU) were studied. We performed consecutive studies by TCD and TCCS. The number of Circle of Willis vessels insonated and the hemodynamic parameters were compared. RESULTS: Mean age was 50 years. Twenty patients were male. By using TCCS, internal carotid artery was insonated in 95%, middle cerebral artery (MCA) in 95%, anterior cerebral artery (ACA) in 91% and posterior cerebral artery (PCA) in 92% of the studies. Using conventional TCD they were insonated in 29%, 93% 67% and 35% of the studies respectively. Mean velocity values measured by CCS and TCD in MCA were 79 cm/sec vs 59 cm/sec respectively (p< 0.0001), in ACA were 61 cm/sec vs 42 cm/sec (p< 0.0001) and in PCA were 43 cm/sec vs 33 cm/sec (p< 0.0001). CONCLUSION: TCCS allows a high quality hemodynamic study of TBI patients admitted to the ICU. Further studies must define its impact on outcome of TBI patients.

Effect of barbiturate coma on adrenal response in patients with traumatic brain injury.

INTRODUCTION: Barbiturate coma is the second tier measure recommended by guidelines to treat post-traumatic refractory intracranial pressure. Systemic hypotension is its most important side effect. Recent evidence suggests that low-dose corticosteroid therapy may be used in a subset of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) to avoid hypotension. We evaluated adrenal function in TBI patients undergoing barbiturate coma, as treatment of their refractory intracranial hypertension. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We prospectively studied 40 patients with moderate to severe TBI. Group A (17 patients) were treated with barbiturate coma. Group B (23 patients) presented intracranial hypertension controlled with first tier measures, and acted as a control. Adrenal function was evaluated by using the high-dose corticotropin stimulation test within 24 h after brain injury and after barbiturate coma induction. RESULTS: Within 24 h after TBI, adrenal function was similar in both groups. Once barbiturate coma was induced, patients in group A treated with barbiturate coma presented a higher incidence of adrenal insufficiency compared with the control group B (53% vs 22%, p=0.03). Patients treated with barbiturates, who developed adrenal impairment, required higher doses of norepinephrine to maintain cerebral perfusion pressure than patients treated with barbiturates without adrenal impairment (1.07+/-1.04 microg/kg/min vs 0.31+/-0.32 mug/kg/min, p=0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with TBI treated with barbiturate coma are at higher risk of developing adrenal insufficiency. This subset of patients presented higher requirements of vasoactive support to avoid hypotension. In these patients corticosteroid therapy may have potential therapeutic implications to treat hemodynamic instability.

Hemodinámica cerebral en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico evaluada por doppler transcraneal y duplex transcraneal con codificación en color. Estudio comparativo / Cerebral hemodynamics in patients with traumatic brain injury evaluated by transcranial doppler and transcranial color coded sonography. A comparison study

Objetivos. Comparar el número de vasos identificados y las velocidades e índices de pulsatilidad de los mismos mediante doppler transcraneal (DTC) y dúplex transcrane al codificado en color (DTCC) en una población de enfermos con traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE). Material y métodos. Se estudiaron 30 enfermos ingresados por TCE en una Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos (UCI) neurocríticos. Consecutivamente se realizaron estudios mediante DTC y DTCC. Se compararon la tasa de insonación de las arterias del polígono de Willis y los parámetros hemodinámicos obtenidos. Resultados. La edad media fue de 50 años. El 67%fueron varones. En el estudio mediante DTCC se insonóla arteria carótida interna en un 95% de los casos, la arteria cerebral media (ACM) en el 95% de las ocasiones, la arteria cerebral anterior (ACA) en un 91%y la arteria cerebral posterior (ACP) en un 92% de los estudios. Mediante DTC convencional se hallaron en un29%, 93%, 67% y 35% respectivamente. La velocidad media mediante DTCC y DTC en la ACM fue de 79 cm/seg vs 59 cm/seg respectivamente (p<0.0001), en la ACA de 61 cm/seg vs 42 cm/seg (p<0.0001) y en la ACP de 43cm/seg y 33 cm/seg (p<0.0001). Conclusiones. El DTCC permite un estudio hemodinámico más completo en los enfermos con TCE ingresados en la UCI. Su impacto en el pronóstico del TCE deberá determinarse en próximos estudios

Objective. To compare the number of vessels identified and mean velocity and pulsatility index values obtained by transcranial doppler (TCD) and transcranial color coded sonography (TCCS) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI).Methods. Thirty patients suffering from TBI admitted in our neurocritical Intensive Care Unit (ICU) were studied. We performed consecutive studies by TCD and TCCS. The number of Circle of Willis vessels insonated and the hemodynamic parameters were compared. Results. Mean age was 50 years. Twenty patients were male. By using TCCS, internal carotid artery was insonated in 95%, middle cerebral artery (MCA)in 95%, anterior cerebral artery (ACA) in 91% and posterior cerebral artery (PCA) in 92% of the studies. Using conventional TCD they were insonated in 29%,93% 67% and 35% of the studies respectively. Mean velocity values measured by CCS and TCD in MCA were 79 cm/sec vs 59 cm/sec respectively (p<0.0001),in ACA were 61 cm/sec vs 42 cm/sec (p<0.0001) and in PCA were 43 cm/sec vs 33 cm/sec (p<0.0001). Conclusion. TCCS allows a high quality hemodynamic study of TBI patients admitted to the ICU. Further studies must define its impact on outcome of TBI patients

[Early non-invasive diagnosis of posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula diagnosed by transcranial color-coded duplex sonography: analysis of 4 patients]. / Diagnóstico precoz no invasivo de la fístula carótido-cavernosa postraumática por dúplex transcraneal color. Análisis de 4 pacientes.

Posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula (PtCCF) is an uncommon complication after cranioencephalic trauma. It is usually diagnosed with a cerebral arteriography when the clinical symptoms have already appeared. The transcranial color-coded duplex sonography (TCDS) is a non-invasive technique at the patient's bedside that permits visualization of the circle of Willis and the intracavernous segment of the internal carotid artery. The initial sonographic patterns that suggest the presence of a PtCCF by TCDS are a mosaic image in color mode, presence of arterial and venous flows mixed with high velocity and low resistances. We present our experience in the early and non-invasive diagnosis of PtCFF in an Intensive Care Unit.

Diagnóstico precoz no invasivo de la fístula carótido-cavernosa postraumática por dúplex transcraneal color. Análisis de 4 pacientes / Early non-invasive diagnosis of posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula diagnosed by transcranial color-coded duplex sonography: analysis of 4 patients

La fístula carótido-cavernosa postraumática (FCCt) es una complicación poco frecuente tras un traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE). Se diagnostica mediante la arteriografía cerebral habitualmente cuando ya ha aparecido la sintomatología clínica. El dúplex transcraneal codificado en color (DTCC) es una técnica no invasiva que en la cabecera del paciente permite la visualización del polígono de Willis (PW) y del segmento intracavernoso de la arteria carótida interna (ACIi). Los patrones sonográficos iniciales que sugieren la presencia de una FCCt mediante DTCC son una imagen en mosaico en el modo color, la presencia de flujos arteriales y venosos mezclados con elevadas velocidades y bajas resistencias. Exponemos nuestra experiencia en el diagnóstico precoz y no invasivo de la FCCt en una Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos

Posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula (PtCCF) is an uncommon complication after cranioencephalic trauma. It is usually diagnosed with a cerebral arteriography when the clinical symptoms have already appeared. The transcranial color-coded duplex sonography (TCDS) is a non-invasive technique at the patient's bedside that permits visualization of the circle of Willis and the intracavernous segment of the internal carotid artery. The initial sonographic patterns that suggest the presence of a PtCCF by TCDS are a mosaic image in color mode, presence of arterial and venous flows mixed with high velocity and low resistances. We present our experience in the early and non-invasive diagnosis of PtCFF in an Intensive Care Unit

Sobre la contribución de la atención primaria a la capacidad resolutiva del sistema de salud y su medición / On the contribution of primary care to the health system’s capacity for solving problems and the measurement of this

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¿Medicinas complementarias o alternativas? Un dilema para el sistema público / Complementary or alternative medicine? A dilemma for the public health system?

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[Comparison of the effectiveness of pentobarbital and thiopental in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. Preliminary report of 20 patients]. / Comparación de la eficacia del pentobarbital y el tiopental en el control de la hipertensión intracraneal refractaria. Resultados preliminares en una serie de 20 pacientes.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of pentobarbital and thiopental to control raised intracranial pressure (ICP), refractory to first level measures, in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Prospective, randomized study to compare the effectiveness between two treatments: pentobarbital and thiopental. The patients will be selected from those admitted to the Intensive Care Unit with a severe traumatic brain injury (postresuscitation Glasgow Coma Scale equal or less than 8 points) and raised ICP (ICP>20 mmHg) refractory to first level measures according to the Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines. The adverse effects of both treatments were also collected. RESULTS: We present the results of the first 20 patients included. Ten received pentobarbital and the other ten thiopental. There were no statistically significance differences in patients'characteristics (age, sex, severity of the trauma at admission and comorbilities). There were no differences between both groups neither in the Glasgow Coma Scale at admission (thiopental six points; pentobarbital seven points; P=0.26) nor in the admission Cranial Tomography, according to the Traumatic Coma Data Bank Classification. Thiopental treatment controlled raised ICP in five cases and pentobarbital in two cases (P=0.16). Five patients in the thiopental group died and eight in the pentobarbital group (P=0.16). There were no statistically differences between both groups regarding to the presence of hypotension (P=1) or infectious complications. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results indicate that thiopental could be more effective than pentobarbital in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. These results support previous experimental findings that show that both treatments are not equal and justify to continue this study.

Comparación de la eficacia del pentobarbital y el tiopental en el control de la hipertensión intracraneal refractaria. Resultados preliminares en una serie de 20 pacientes / Comparison of the effectiveness of pentobarbital and thiopental in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. Preliminary report of 20 patients

Objetivo. Comparar la eficacia del pentobarbital y tiopental en el control de la hipertensión intracraneal (HIC) refractaria a las medidas de primer nivel, según las Guías de Práctica Clínica de la "Brain Trauma Foundation", en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE) grave. Material y métodos. Estudio prospectivo de cohorte, aleatorizado, de intervención terapéutica comparativa entre dos fármacos: pentobarbital y tiopental. La muestra fue seleccionada a partir de los pacientes que sufrieron un TCE grave (Glasgow Coma Scale GCS, postresucitación, 20 mmHg) refractaria al tratamiento convencional, de acuerdo con las Guías de Práctica Clínica de la "Brain Trauma Foundation". Además de comprobar la eficacia en el control de la PIC, también se recogieron los efectos secundarios del tratamiento. Resultados. Se presentan los resultados de los primeros 20 pacientes reclutados, de los cuales diez recibieron tiopental y diez pentobarbital. No hubo diferencias estadísticamente significativas en las características basales de los pacientes (edad, sexo, índices de gravedad y comorbilidades). Tampoco hubo diferencias respecto al GCS de ingreso (tiopental seis puntos; pentobarbital siete puntos; P=0,26) ni en la tomografía craneal computarizada de ingreso, según la clasificación del "Traumatic Coma Data Bank". En el grupo de tiopental se controló la PIC en cinco casos y en el grupo de pentobarbital en dos pacientes (P=0,16). Cinco pacientes tratados con tiopental fallecieron y ocho en el grupo de pentobarbital (P=0,16). No hubo diferencias significativas entre ambos grupos respecto a la incidencia de hipotensión arterial (P=1) o complicaciones infecciosas. Conclusiones. los resultados preliminares de este estudio indican que el tiopental podría ser más eficaz que el pentobarbital en el control de la HIC refractaria a las medidas de primer nivel. Dichos resultados confirman la evidencia experimental que indica que los mecanismos neuroprotectores de ambos fármacos son distintos y justifican el continuar aumentando el tamaño muestral de nuestro estudio para poder definir mejor la eficacia de ambos fármacos

Objective. To assess the effectiveness of pentobarbital and thiopental to control raised intracranial pressure (ICP), refractory to first level measures, in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Material and methods. Prospective, randomized study to compare the effectiveness between two treatments: pentobarbital and thiopental. The patients will be selected from those admitted to the Intensive Care Unit with a severe traumatic brain injury (postresuscitation Glasgow Coma Scale equal or less than 8 points) and raised ICP (ICP>20 mmHg) refractory to first level measures according to the Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines. The adverse effects of both treatments were also collected. Results. We present the results of the first 20 patients included. Ten received pentobarbital and the other ten thiopental. There were no statistically significance differences in patients’characteristics (age, sex, severity of the trauma at admission and comorbilities). There were no differences between both groups neither in the Glasgow Coma Scale at admission (thiopental six points; pentobarbital seven points; P=0.26) nor in the admission Cranial Tomography, according to the Traumatic Coma Data Bank classification. Thiopental treatment controlled raised ICP in five cases and pentobarbital in two cases (P=0.16). Five patients in the thiopental group died and eight in the pentobarbital group (P=0.16). There were no statistically differences between both groups regarding to the presence of hypotension (P=1) or infectious complications. Conclusions. These preliminary results indicate that thiopental could be more effective than pentobarbital in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. These results support previous experimental findings that show that both treatments are not equal and justify to continue this study

Detección precoz de problemas relacionados con medicamentos / Early detection of drug therapy problems: design and introduction of a community intervention program

Fundamento y objetivo: estandarizar el proceso de detección, registro, prevención y resolución de problemas relacionados con medicamentos (PRM) en un Centro de Atención Primaria (CAP) para la aplicación sistemática de un programa de intervención. Material y método: estudio de intervención de carácter prospectivo que consistió en la detección, seguimiento e intervención de PRM en el CAP de La Barceloneta durante el período de abril de 2002 a enero de 2003. Resultados: se registraron 1.308 PRM correspondientes a 620 pacientes, de los cuales el 63,5 por ciento eran mujeres y el 66,1 por ciento mayores de 55 años. Los grupos terapéuticos correspondieron al aparato cardiovascular, sistema nervioso, aparato digestivo y metabolismo. El 83,6 por ciento de los PRM identificados fueron de la categoría "cumplimiento terapéutico". El personal de enfermería fue quien notificó más casos (83,7 por ciento). Se intervino sobre 222 PRM, de los cuales se resolvieron 94 (42,3 por ciento). Conclusiones: el ámbito comunitario constituye el lugar idóneo para la detección precoz y resolución de los PRM, fundamentalmente los potenciales. Asimismo, el desarrollo de programas coordinados y de intervención interdisciplinar ofrece un potencial elevado para la prevención de este tipo de problemas y la mejora del uso racional de los medicamentos (AU)