A Neurofunctional Domains Approach to Evaluate D1/D5 Dopamine Receptor Partial Agonism on Cognition and Motivation in Healthy Volunteers With Low Working Memory Capacity.

BACKGROUND: Dopamine D1 receptor signaling plays key roles in core domains of neural function, including cognition and reward processing; however, many questions remain about the functions of circuits modulated by dopamine D1 receptor, largely because clinically viable, selective agonists have yet to be tested in humans. METHODS: Using a novel, exploratory neurofunctional domains study design, we assessed the safety, tolerability, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of PF-06412562, a selective D1/D5R partial agonist, in healthy male volunteers who met prespecified criteria for low working memory capacity. Functional magnetic resonance imaging, electrophysiologic endpoints, and behavioral paradigms were used to assess working memory, executive function, and motivation/reward processing following multiple-dose administration of PF-06412562. A total of 77 patients were assigned PF-06412562 (3 mg twice daily and 15 mg twice daily) or placebo administered for 5 to 7 days. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, it was neither powered for any specific treatment effect nor corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Nominally significant improvements from baseline in cognitive endpoints were observed in all 3 groups; however, improvements in PF-06412562-treated patients were less than in placebo-treated participants. Motivation/reward processing endpoints were variable. PF-06412562 was safe and well tolerated, with no serious adverse events, severe adverse events, or adverse events leading to dose reduction or temporary discontinuation except for 1 permanent discontinuation due to increased orthostatic heart rate. CONCLUSIONS: PF-06412562, in the dose range and patient population explored in this study, did not improve cognitive function or motivation/reward processing more than placebo over the 5- to 7-day treatment period. CLINICALTRIALS.GOV IDENTIFIER: NCT02306876.

Patients with autism spectrum disorders display reproducible functional connectivity alterations.

Despite the high clinical burden, little is known about pathophysiology underlying autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Recent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) studies have found atypical synchronization of brain activity in ASD. However, no consensus has been reached on the nature and clinical relevance of these alterations. Here, we addressed these questions in four large ASD cohorts. Using rs-fMRI, we identified functional connectivity alterations associated with ASD. We tested for associations of these imaging phenotypes with clinical and demographic factors such as age, sex, medication status, and clinical symptom severity. Our results showed reproducible patterns of ASD-associated functional hyper- and hypoconnectivity. Hypoconnectivity was primarily restricted to sensory-motor regions, whereas hyperconnectivity hubs were predominately located in prefrontal and parietal cortices. Shifts in cortico-cortical between-network connectivity from outside to within the identified regions were shown to be a key driver of these abnormalities. This reproducible pathophysiological phenotype was partially associated with core ASD symptoms related to communication and daily living skills and was not affected by age, sex, or medication status. Although the large effect sizes in standardized cohorts are encouraging with respect to potential application as a treatment and for patient stratification, the moderate link to clinical symptoms and the large overlap with healthy controls currently limit the usability of identified alterations as diagnostic or efficacy readout.

Increased risk of ADHD in families with ASD.

Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are frequent comorbid neurodevelopmental conditions and the overlap between both disorders remains to be delineated. A more complete understanding of the shared genetic and environmental factors is needed. Using a family-based method, we evaluated the risk of ADHD in a group of relatives with an ASD proband (ASD-) and a group of relatives with an ASD and ADHD proband (ASD+). We enrolled 1245 individuals in the study: 499 probands, their 746 first-degree relatives and 140 controls. We used a multivariate generalized estimating equation (GEE) model, in which the dependent variable was the ADHD diagnosis in the relatives and the independent variable the ASD+ or ASD- in probands. We adjusted for sociodemographic factors (age, sex, IQ) and for the nature of the familial relationship with the affected proband (parent or sibling). Among the probands, there were 287 ASD- and 212 ASD+ individuals. ADHD was more frequent in relatives (19%) than in the control group (7%) (p = 0.001). The risk of ADHD was higher in the ASD+ relatives group than in the ASD- relatives group (GEE model OR 1.58 [95% CI 1.04-2.38], p = 0.032). This result was found in parents (OR 1.96 [95% CI 1.14-3.36], but not in siblings (OR 1.28 [95% CI 0.84-1.94], p = 0.434). Our study provides a representative estimate of the family distribution of ADHD in relatives of ASD probands but supports the modest effect of shared genetic and environmental factors between both disorders.

Cerebral blood flow predicts differential neurotransmitter activity.

Application of metabolic magnetic resonance imaging measures such as cerebral blood flow in translational medicine is limited by the unknown link of observed alterations to specific neurophysiological processes. In particular, the sensitivity of cerebral blood flow to activity changes in specific neurotransmitter systems remains unclear. We address this question by probing cerebral blood flow in healthy volunteers using seven established drugs with known dopaminergic, serotonergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic mechanisms of action. We use a novel framework aimed at disentangling the observed effects to contribution from underlying neurotransmitter systems. We find for all evaluated compounds a reliable spatial link of respective cerebral blood flow changes with underlying neurotransmitter receptor densities corresponding to their primary mechanisms of action. The strength of these associations with receptor density is mediated by respective drug affinities. These findings suggest that cerebral blood flow is a sensitive brain-wide in-vivo assay of metabolic demands across a variety of neurotransmitter systems in humans.

Prediction error, ketamine and psychosis: An updated model.

In 2007, we proposed an explanation of delusion formation as aberrant prediction error-driven associative learning. Further, we argued that the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine provided a good model for this process. Subsequently, we validated the model in patients with psychosis, relating aberrant prediction error signals to delusion severity. During the ensuing period, we have developed these ideas, drawing on the simple principle that brains build a model of the world and refine it by minimising prediction errors, as well as using it to guide perceptual inferences. While previously we focused on the prediction error signal per se, an updated view takes into account its precision, as well as the precision of prior expectations. With this expanded perspective, we see several possible routes to psychotic symptoms - which may explain the heterogeneity of psychotic illness, as well as the fact that other drugs, with different pharmacological actions, can produce psychotomimetic effects. In this article, we review the basic principles of this model and highlight specific ways in which prediction errors can be perturbed, in particular considering the reliability and uncertainty of predictions. The expanded model explains hallucinations as perturbations of the uncertainty mediated balance between expectation and prediction error. Here, expectations dominate and create perceptions by suppressing or ignoring actual inputs. Negative symptoms may arise due to poor reliability of predictions in service of action. By mapping from biology to belief and perception, the account proffers new explanations of psychosis. However, challenges remain. We attempt to address some of these concerns and suggest future directions, incorporating other symptoms into the model, building towards better understanding of psychosis.

Medial temporal lobe function during emotional memory in early Alzheimer's disease, mild cognitive impairment and healthy ageing: an fMRI study.

BACKGROUND: Relative to intentional memory encoding, which quickly declines in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), incidental memory for emotional stimuli appears to deteriorate more slowly. We hypothesised that tests of incidental emotional memory may inform on different aspects of cognitive decline in MCI and AD. METHODS: Patients with MCI, AD and Healthy Controls (HC) were asked to attend to emotional pictures (i.e., positive and neutral) sequentially presented during an fMRI session. Attention was monitored behaviourally. A surprise post-scan recognition test was then administered. RESULTS: The groups remained attentive within the scanner. The post-scan recognition pattern was in the form of (HC = MCI) > AD, with only the former group showing a clear benefit from emotional pictures. fMRI analysis of incidental encoding demonstrated clusters of activation in para-hippocampal regions and in the hippocampus in HC and MCI patients but not in AD patients. The pattern of activation observed in MCI patients tended to be greater than that found in HC. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that incidental emotional memory might offer a suitable platform to investigate, using behavioural and fMRI measures, subtle changes in the process of developing AD. These changes seem to differ from those found using standard episodic memory tests. The underpinnings of such differences and the potential clinical use of this methodology are discussed in depth.

Glutamatergic model psychoses: prediction error, learning, and inference.

Modulating glutamatergic neurotransmission induces alterations in conscious experience that mimic the symptoms of early psychotic illness. We review studies that use intravenous administration of ketamine, focusing on interindividual variability in the profundity of the ketamine experience. We will consider this individual variability within a hypothetical model of brain and cognitive function centered upon learning and inference. Within this model, the brains, neural systems, and even single neurons specify expectations about their inputs and responding to violations of those expectations with new learning that renders future inputs more predictable. We argue that ketamine temporarily deranges this ability by perturbing both the ways in which prior expectations are specified and the ways in which expectancy violations are signaled. We suggest that the former effect is predominantly mediated by NMDA blockade and the latter by augmented and inappropriate feedforward glutamatergic signaling. We suggest that the observed interindividual variability emerges from individual differences in neural circuits that normally underpin the learning and inference processes described. The exact source for that variability is uncertain, although it is likely to arise not only from genetic variation but also from subjects' previous experiences and prior learning. Furthermore, we argue that chronic, unlike acute, NMDA blockade alters the specification of expectancies more profoundly and permanently. Scrutinizing individual differences in the effects of acute and chronic ketamine administration in the context of the Bayesian brain model may generate new insights about the symptoms of psychosis; their underlying cognitive processes and neurocircuitry.

Midbrain activation during Pavlovian conditioning and delusional symptoms in schizophrenia.

CONTEXT: Recent theories have suggested that the inappropriate activation of limbic motivational systems in response to neutral stimuli may underlie the development of delusions in schizophrenia. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the activation of the amygdala, midbrain, and ventral striatum during an aversive pavlovian conditioning task in patients with schizophrenia and healthy control participants using functional magnetic resonance imaging. DESIGN: Cross-sectional case-control functional neuroimaging study. SETTING: Academic medical center. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty patients with DSM-IV-diagnosed schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 20 healthy control participants. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Regional brain activation as assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging blood oxygen level-dependent responses, and delusional symptom severity on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. RESULTS: Patients with schizophrenia showed abnormal activation of the amygdala, midbrain, and ventral striatum during conditioning. Activation of the midbrain in response to neutral rather than aversive cues during conditioning was correlated with the severity of delusional symptoms in the patient group (corrected P = .04). CONCLUSION: Inappropriate activation of the midbrain in response to neutral stimuli during conditioning is associated with the severity of delusional symptoms in patients with schizophrenia.

Individual differences in psychotic effects of ketamine are predicted by brain function measured under placebo.

The symptoms of major psychotic illness are diverse and vary widely across individuals. Furthermore, the prepsychotic phase is indistinct, providing little indication of the precise pattern of symptoms that may subsequently emerge. Likewise, although in some individuals who have affected family members the occurrence of disease may be predicted, the specific symptom profile may not. An important question, therefore, is whether predictive physiological markers of symptom expression can be identified. We conducted a placebo-controlled, within-subjects study in healthy individuals to investigate whether individual variability in baseline physiology, as assessed using functional magnetic resonance imaging, predicted psychosis elicited by the psychotomimetic drug ketamine and whether physiological change under drug reproduced those reported in patients. Here we show that brain responses to cognitive task demands under placebo predict the expression of psychotic phenomena after drug administration. Frontothalamic responses to a working memory task were associated with the tendency of subjects to experience negative symptoms under ketamine. Bilateral frontal responses to an attention task were also predictive of negative symptoms. Frontotemporal activations during language processing tasks were predictive of thought disorder and auditory illusory experiences. A subpsychotic dose of ketamine administered during a second scanning session resulted in increased basal ganglia and thalamic activation during the working memory task, paralleling previous reports in patients with schizophrenia. These results demonstrate precise and predictive brain markers for individual profiles of vulnerability to drug-induced psychosis.

Applications of fMRI in translational medicine and clinical practice.

Functional MRI (fMRI) has had a major impact in cognitive neuroscience. fMRI now has a small but growing role in clinical neuroimaging, with initial applications to neurosurgical planning. Current clinical research has emphasized novel concepts for clinicians, such as the role of plasticity in recovery and the maintenance of brain functions in a broad range of diseases. There is a wider potential for clinical fMRI in applications ranging from presymptomatic diagnosis, through drug development and individualization of therapies, to understanding functional brain disorders. Realization of this potential will require changes in the way clinical neuroimaging services are planned and delivered.

Frontal responses during learning predict vulnerability to the psychotogenic effects of ketamine: linking cognition, brain activity, and psychosis.

CONTEXT: Establishing a neurobiological account of delusion formation that links cognitive processes, brain activity, and symptoms is important to furthering our understanding of psychosis. OBJECTIVE: To explore a theoretical model of delusion formation that implicates prediction error-dependent associative learning processes in a pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging study using the psychotomimetic drug ketamine. DESIGN: Within-subject, randomized, placebo-controlled study. SETTING: Hospital-based clinical research facility, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, England. The work was completed within the Wellcome Trust and Medical Research Council Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge. PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen healthy, right-handed volunteers (8 of whom were male) with a mean +/- SD age of 29 +/- 7 years and a mean +/- SD predicted full-scale IQ of 113 +/- 4 were recruited from within the local community by advertisement. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were given low-dose ketamine (100 ng/mL of plasma) or placebo while performing a causal associative learning task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. In a separate session outside the scanner, the dose was increased (to 200 ng/mL of plasma) and subjects underwent a structured clinical interview. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Brain activation, blood plasma levels of ketamine, and scores from psychiatric ratings scales (Brief Psychiatric Ratings Scale, Present State Examination, and Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale). RESULTS: Low-dose ketamine perturbs error-dependent learning activity in the right frontal cortex (P = .03). High-dose ketamine produces perceptual aberrations (P = .01) and delusion-like beliefs (P = .007). Critically, subjects showing the highest degree of frontal activation with placebo show the greatest occurrence of drug-induced perceptual aberrations (P = .03) and ideas or delusions of reference (P = .04). CONCLUSIONS: These findings relate aberrant prediction error-dependent associative learning to referential ideas and delusions via a perturbation of frontal cortical function. They are consistent with a model of delusion formation positing disruptions in error-dependent learning.

Schizophrenia, ketamine and cannabis: evidence of overlapping memory deficits.

Drug models of mental illness are considered useful if they provoke its characteristic symptoms. In this respect, ketamine and tetrahydrocannabinol (cannabis) are coming under increasing scrutiny as models for schizophrenia. However, although both undoubtedly produce psychotic symptoms characteristic of the disorder, we argue here that, because schizophrenia is also accompanied by cognitive deficits, a full understanding of the impact of these drugs on cognition will be crucial in taking these models further. Memory deficits are pronounced in schizophrenia and we focus upon patterns of working and episodic memory impairment produced by ketamine and cannabis, identifying overlaps between drug and illness. We suggest that close attention to these deficits can offer insights into core pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

The effects of a subpsychotic dose of ketamine on recognition and source memory for agency: implications for pharmacological modelling of core symptoms of schizophrenia.

Ketamine is increasingly used to model the cognitive deficits and symptoms of schizophrenia. We investigated the extent to which ketamine administration in healthy volunteers reproduces the deficits in episodic recognition memory and agency source monitoring reported in schizophrenia. Intravenous infusions of placebo or 100 ng/ml ketamine were administered to 12 healthy volunteers in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, within-subjects study. In response to presented words, the subject or experimenter performed a deep or shallow encoding task, providing a 2(drug) x 2(depth of processing) x 2(agency) factorial design. At test, subjects discriminated old/new words, and recalled the sources (task and agent). Data were analyzed using multinomial modelling to identify item recognition, source memory for agency and task, and guessing biases. Under ketamine, item recognition and cued recall of deeply encoded items were impaired, replicating previous findings. In contrast to schizophrenia, there was a reduced tendency to externalize agency source guessing biases under ketamine. While the recognition memory deficit observed with ketamine is consistent with previous work and with schizophrenia, the changes in source memory differ from those reported in schizophrenic patients. This difference may account for the pattern of psychopathology induced by ketamine.

Modulation of effective connectivity by cognitive demand in phonological verbal fluency.

Verbal fluency is a classic neuropsychological measure of language production. Phonological verbal fluency involves the generation of words beginning with a specified letter, and its functional neuroanatomy is comprised of a distributed network of regions which is modulated by cognitive load. In order to investigate the functional relationship of these regions, the effective connectivity was analyzed with covariance structural equation modeling under conditions of varying cognitive load. Significant path coefficients were evident between the anterior cingulate, left middle frontal gyrus, and precuneus. The left middle frontal gyrus showed a facilitory projection to the precuneus which had a suppressive influence on anterior cingulate activation. With increasing cognitive demand, the left middle frontal projection to the precuneus became suppressive, and the path coefficient from the precuneus to the anterior cingulate showed a marked diminution in strength. The path analysis suggests that the lead-in process for letter verbal fluency may primarily involve an orthographic visual strategy. The marked changes in path coefficients with the increased cognitive load may reflect the greater demands placed on executive function. The significant changes in path coefficient values with increased cognitive demand indicate the importance of accounting for task difficulty not only in the interpretation of brain activation maps but also for effective connectivity measurements.

Functional dysconnectivity in schizophrenia associated with attentional modulation of motor function.

It is not known whether there is a core abnormality that occurs in all cases of schizophrenia. The cognitive dysmetria hypothesis proposes that there is such an abnormality which is characterized cognitively by a disruption in control and coordination processes, and functionally by abnormal inter-regional connectivity within the cortico-cerebellar-thalamo-cortical circuit (CCTCC). In the current study, we used functional MRI (fMRI) to investigate these two key aspects of the hypothesis. Since patients with schizophrenia show deficits in attention which have been characterized extensively using the continuous performance task (CPT) and since functional imaging studies have also demonstrated that this task engages the CCTCC, we used this task to investigate whether two patient groups with distinct symptom profiles would show functional dysconnectivity within this network. Three groups of subjects participated in the study: healthy volunteers (n = 12), schizophrenia patients with both negative and positive symptoms (n = 11) and schizophrenia patients with primarily positive symptoms (n = 11). Patient groups were matched for age of illness onset and medication, and to the control group for age, gender and handedness. Subjects were scanned using fMRI whilst they performed a modified version of the CPT, involving both degraded and non-degraded stimuli. Stimulus degradation has been shown to produce decrements in sensitivity, which is thought to reflect increased demands on the limited capacity of visual attention. Between-group comparisons revealed that patients with schizophrenia, irrespective of symptomatology, showed attenuation of the anterior cingulate and cerebellar response to stimulus degradation in comparison with control subjects. We also observed disruptions of inter-regional brain integration in schizophrenia. A task-specific relationship between the medial superior frontal gyrus and both anterior cingulate and the cerebellum was disrupted in both patient groups in comparison with controls. In addition, patients with negative symptoms showed impaired behavioural performance, and abnormal task-related connectivity between anterior cingulate and supplementary motor area. These findings are consistent with theoretical accounts of schizophrenia as a disorder of functional integration, and with the cognitive dysmetria hypothesis, which posits a disconnection within the CCTCC as a fundamental abnormality in schizophrenia, independent of diagnostic subtype. Furthermore, these data show evidence of additional functional deficits in patients with negative symptoms, deficits which may explain the accompanying attentional impairment.

Impairment of specific episodic memory processes by sub-psychotic doses of ketamine: the effects of levels of processing at encoding and of the subsequent retrieval task.

RATIONALE: The precise nature of the impact of the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist, ketamine, upon human episodic memory, has yet to be elucidated fully. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to assess the effects of ketamine on the sub-processes facilitating memory encoding and retrieval. METHODS: We evaluated the effects of the drug on a series of memory performance measures depending upon whether it was administered at the encoding or retrieval stage and on the nature of the encoding task used. Twelve healthy volunteers participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, within-subjects study. Intravenous infusions of placebo, 50 ng/ml ketamine or 100 ng/ml ketamine were administered. We investigated the effects of ketamine on three key aspects of episodic memory: encoding vs retrieval processes, source memory, and depth of processing. Data were analysed using both multinomial modelling and standard measures of item discrimination and response bias. RESULTS: Deleterious effects of ketamine on episodic memory were primarily attributable to its effects on encoding, rather than retrieval processes. Recognition memory was impaired for items encoded at an intermediate level of processing, but preserved for shallowly and deeply encoded items. Increased source guessing bias was also observed when encoding took place under ketamine. CONCLUSIONS: The effects of ketamine upon episodic memory seem, therefore, to predominate at encoding. Furthermore, our results are also consistent with a specific impairment of encoding processes that result in subsequent recollective, as opposed to familiarity-based, retrieval. The observed effects are compatible with memory deficits seen in schizophrenia and thus provide some support for the ketamine model of the disease.

Prediction error during retrospective revaluation of causal associations in humans: fMRI evidence in favor of an associative model of learning.

Associative learning theory assumes that prediction error is a driving force in learning. A competing view, probabilistic contrast (PC) theory, is that learning and prediction error are unrelated. We tested a learning phenomenon that has proved troublesome for associative theory--retrospective revaluation--to evaluate these two models. We previously showed that activation in right lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) provides a reliable signature for the presence of prediction error. Thus, if the associative view is correct, retrospective revaluation should be accompanied by right lateral PFC activation. PC theory would be supported by the absence of this activation. Right PFC and ventral striatal activation occurred during retrospective revaluation, supporting the associative account. Activations appeared to reflect the degree of revaluation, predicting later brain responses to revalued cues. Our results support a modified associative account of retrospective revaluation and demonstrate the potential of functional neuroimaging as a tool for evaluating competing learning models.

Subdissociative dose ketamine produces a deficit in manipulation but not maintenance of the contents of working memory.

We investigated the effects of subdissociative dose ketamine on executive processes during a working memory task. A total of 11 healthy volunteers participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, within-subjects study. They attended on three occasions, receiving intravenous infusions of placebo, a lower ketamine dose, and a higher ketamine dose. On each occasion, they underwent a series of tasks engaging working memory function in verbal and visuo-spatial domains. Further tasks explored aspects of long-term memory, planning, attention, and perceptual processing. With respect to working memory/executive function, a highly specific pattern of impairment was observed. Impairments were seen only at the higher dose of ketamine and restricted to a subgroup of the verbal working memory tasks: While visuo-spatial working memory showed no evidence of impairment, and while simple maintenance processes during verbal working memory were also unimpaired, higher dose ketamine produced a significant impairment in the manipulation of information within working memory. This process-specific effect of ketamine was reflected in a drug-by-task interaction. The specificity of this ketamine effect suggests that the earliest effect of NMDA receptor blockade is in higher order control of executive function rather than in more basic maintenance processes.

Practice and difficulty evoke anatomically and pharmacologically dissociable brain activation dynamics.

Brain activation is adaptive to task difficulty and practice. We used functional MRI to map brain systems activated by an object-location learning task in 24 healthy elderly volunteers each scanned following placebo and two of four active drugs studied. We distinguished a fronto-striatal system adaptive to difficulty from a posterior system adaptive to practice. Fronto-striatal response to increased cognitive load was significantly attenuated by scopolamine, sulpiride and methylphenidate; practice effects were not modulated by these drugs but were enhanced by diazepam. We also found enhancement by methylphenidate, and attenuation by sulpiride, of load response in premotor, cingulate and parietal regions comprising a spatial attention network. Difficulty and practice evoke anatomically and pharmacologically dissociable brain activation dynamics, which are probably mediated by different neurotransmitter systems in humans.