Natural Product Skatole Ameliorates Lipotoxicity-Induced Multiple Hepatic Damage under Hyperlipidemic Conditions in Hepatocytes.

Skatole (3-methylindole, 3MI) is a natural-origin compound derived from plants, insects, and microbial metabolites in human intestines. Skatole has an anti-lipid peroxidation effect and is a biomarker for several diseases. However, its effect on hepatocyte lipid metabolism and lipotoxicity has not been elucidated. Hepatic lipotoxicity is induced by excess saturated free fatty acids in hyperlipidemia, which directly damages the hepatocytes. Lipotoxicity is involved in several metabolic diseases and hepatocytes, particularly affecting nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) progression. NAFLD is caused by the accumulation of fat by excessive free fatty acids (FFAs) in the blood and is accompanied by hepatic damage, such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, abnormal glucose and insulin metabolism, oxidative stress, and lipoapoptosis with lipid accumulation. Hepatic lipotoxicity causes multiple hepatic damages in NAFLD and has a directly effect on the progression from NAFLD to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). This study confirmed that the natural compound skatole improves various damages to hepatocytes caused by lipotoxicity in hyperlipidemic conditions. To induce lipotoxicity, we exposed HepG2, SNU-449, and Huh7 cells to palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, and confirmed the protective effect of skatole. Skatole inhibited fat accumulation in the hepatocytes, reduced ER and oxidative stress, and recovered insulin resistance and glucose uptake. Importantly, skatole reduced lipoapoptosis by regulating caspase activity. In conclusion, skatole ameliorated multiple types of hepatocyte damage induced by lipotoxicity in the presence of excess free fatty acids.

Dulaglutide improves muscle function by attenuating inflammation through OPA-1-TLR-9 signaling in aged mice.

Dulaglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist, is widely used to treat diabetes. However, its effects on muscle wasting due to aging are poorly understood. In the current study, we investigated the therapeutic potential and underlying mechanism of dulaglutide in muscle wasting in aged mice. Dulaglutide improved muscle mass and strength in aged mice. Histological analysis revealed that the cross-sectional area of the tibialis anterior (TA) in the dulaglutide-treated group was thicker than that in the vehicle group. Moreover, dulaglutide increased the shift toward middle and large-sized fibers in both young and aged mice compared to the vehicle. Dulaglutide increased myofiber type I and type IIa in young (18.5% and 8.2%) and aged (1.8% and 19.7%) mice, respectively, compared to the vehicle group. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, decreased but increased by dulaglutide in aged mice. The expression of atrophic factors such as myostatin, atrogin-1, and muscle RING-finger protein-1 was decreased in aged mice, whereas that of the myogenic factor, MyoD, was increased in both young and aged mice following dulaglutide treatment. In aged mice, optic atrophy-1 (OPA-1) protein was decreased, whereas Toll-like receptor-9 (TLR-9) and its targeting inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 [IL-6] and tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α]) were elevated in the TA and quadriceps (QD) muscles. In contrast, dulaglutide administration reversed this expression pattern, thereby significantly attenuating the expression of inflammatory cytokines in aged mice. These data suggest that dulaglutide may exert beneficial effects in the treatment of muscle wasting due to aging.

Glucosamine potentiates the differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells into glucose-responsive insulin-producing cells.

BACKGROUND: Islet transplantation might be a logical strategy to restore insulin secretion for the treatment of diabetes, however, the scarcity of donors poses an obstacle for such a treatment. As an alternative islet source, differentiation of stem cells into insulin-producing cells (IPCs) has been tried. Many protocols have been developed to improve the efficiency of differentiation of stem cells into IPCs. In this study, we investigated whether glucosamine supplementation during differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) into IPCs can improve the insulin secretory function. METHODS: Glucosamine was added to the original differentiation medium at different stages of differentiation of hADSCs into IPCs for 12 days and insulin secretion was analyzed. RESULTS: Addition of glucosamine alone to the growth medium of hADSCs did not affect the differentiation of hADSCs to IPCs. Supplementation of the differentiation medium with glucosamine at a later stage (protocol G3) proved to have the greatest effect on IPC differentiation. Basal and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) was significantly increased and the expression of insulin and C-peptide was increased in differentiated IPCs as compared with that in differentiated IPCs using the conventional protocol (protocol C). In addition, the expression of beta-cell specific transcription factors such as pancreatic and duodenal homeobox1 (PDX1) and neurogenin 3 (NGN3) was also increased. Furthermore, the expression of genes related to insulin secretion, including synaptotagmin 4 (Syt4), glucokinase (Gck) and glucose transporter 2 (Glut2), was also increased. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that glucosamine supplementation potentiates the differentiation of hADSCs into IPCs.

Direct differentiation of insulin-producing cells from human urine-derived stem cells.

The loss of pancreatic ß-cells is a cause of diabetes. Therefore, replacement of pancreatic ß-cells is a logical strategy for the treatment of diabetes, and the generation of insulin-producing cells (IPCs) from stem cells has been widely investigated as an alternative source for pancreatic ß-cells. Here, we isolated stem cells from human urine and investigated their differentiation potential into IPCs. We checked the expression of surface stem cell markers and stem cell transcription factors, and found that the isolated human urine-derived stem cells (hUDSCs) expressed the stem cell markers CD44, CD90, CD105 and stage-specific embryonic antigen (SSEA)-4. In addition, these cells expressed octamer binding transcription factor (Oct)4 and vimentin. hUDSCs could differentiate into adipocytes and osteocytes, as evidenced by Oil-red O staining and Alizarin Red S-staining of differentiated cells, respectively. When we directly differentiated hUDSCs into IPCs, the differentiated cells expressed mRNA for pancreatic transcription factors such as neurogenin (Ngn)3 and pancreatic and duodenal homeobox (Pdx)1. Differentiated IPCs expressed insulin and glucagon mRNA and protein, and these IPCs also secreted insulin in response to glucose stimulation. In conclusion, we found that hUDSCs can be directly differentiated into IPCs, which secrete insulin in response to glucose.

Amelioration of muscle wasting by glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist in muscle atrophy.

BACKGROUND: Skeletal muscle atrophy is defined as a reduction of muscle mass caused by excessive protein degradation. However, the development of therapeutic interventions is still in an early stage. Although glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists, such as exendin-4 (Ex-4) and dulaglutide, are widely used for the treatment of diabetes, their effects on muscle pathology are unknown. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of GLP-1R agonist for muscle wasting and the mechanisms involved. METHODS: Mouse C2C12 myotubes were used to evaluate the in vitro effects of Ex-4 in the presence or absence of dexamethasone (Dex) on the regulation of the expression of muscle atrophic factors and the underlying mechanisms using various pharmacological inhibitors. In addition, we investigated the in vivo therapeutic effect of Ex-4 in a Dex-induced mouse muscle atrophy model (20 mg/kg/day i.p.) followed by injection of Ex-4 (100 ng/day i.p.) for 12 days and chronic kidney disease (CKD)-induced muscle atrophy model. Furthermore, we evaluated the effect of a long-acting GLP-1R agonist by treatment of dulaglutide (1 mg/kg/week s.c.) for 3 weeks, in DBA/2J-mdx mice, a Duchenne muscular dystrophy model. RESULTS: Ex-4 suppressed the expression of myostatin (MSTN) and muscle atrophic factors such as F-box only protein 32 (atrogin-1) and muscle RING-finger protein-1 (MuRF-1) in Dex-treated C2C12 myotubes. The suppression effect was via protein kinase A and protein kinase B signalling pathways through GLP-1R. In addition, Ex-4 treatment inhibited glucocorticoid receptor (GR) translocation by up-regulating the proteins of GR inhibitory complexes. In a Dex-induced muscle atrophy model, Ex-4 ameliorated muscle atrophy by suppressing muscle atrophic factors and enhancing myogenic factors (MyoG and MyoD), leading to increased muscle mass and function. In the CKD muscle atrophy model, Ex-4 also increased muscle mass, myofiber size, and muscle function. In addition, treatment with a long-acting GLP-1R agonist, dulaglutide, recovered muscle mass and function in DBA/2J-mdx mice. CONCLUSIONS: GLP-1R agonists ameliorate muscle wasting by suppressing MSTN and muscle atrophic factors and enhancing myogenic factors through GLP-1R-mediated signalling pathways. These novel findings suggest that activating GLP-1R signalling may be useful for the treatment of atrophy-related muscular diseases.

Electrical Impedance Monitoring of C2C12 Myoblast Differentiation on an Indium Tin Oxide Electrode.

Electrical cell-substrate impedance sensing is increasingly being used for label-free and real-time monitoring of changes in cell morphology and number during cell growth, drug screening, and differentiation. In this study, we evaluated the feasibility of using ECIS to monitor C2C12 myoblast differentiation using a fabricated indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode-based chip. C2C12 myoblast differentiation on the ITO electrode was validated based on decreases in the mRNA level of MyoD and increases in the mRNA levels of myogenin and myosin heavy chain (MHC). Additionally, MHC expression and morphological changes in myoblasts differentiated on the ITO electrode were comparable to those in cells in the control culture dish. From the monitoring the integration of the resistance change at 21.5 kHz, the cell differentiation was label-free and real-time detectable in 30 h of differentiation (p < 0.05).

The anti-angiogenic herbal extract from Melissa officinalis inhibits adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and suppresses adipocyte hypertrophy in high fat diet-induced obese C57BL/6J mice.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Melissa officinalis L. (Labiatae; lemon balm) has been used traditionally and contemporarily as an anti-stress herb. Current hypotheses suggest that not only chronic stress promotes angiogenesis, but angiogenesis also modulates adipogenesis and obesity. Because the herbal extract ALS-L1023 from M. officinalis L. (Labiatae; lemon balm) has an anti-angiogenic activity, we hypothesized that ALS-L1023 could inhibit adipogenesis and adipocyte hypertrophy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: ALS-L1023 was prepared by a two-step organic solvent fractionation from M. officinalis. The effects of ALS-L1023 on adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and adipocyte hypertrophy in high fat diet (HFD)-fed obese mice were measured using in vivo and in vitro approaches. RESULTS: ALS-L1023 inhibited angiogenesis in a dose-dependent manner in the HUVEC tube formation assay in vitro. Treatment of cells with ALS-L1023 inhibited lipid accumulation and adipocyte-specific gene expression caused by troglitazone or MDI differentiation mix. ALS-L1023 reduced mRNA expression of angiogenic factors (VEGF-A and FGF-2) and MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9) in differentiated cells. In contrast, mRNA levels of angiogenic inhibitors (TSP-1, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2) increased. Protease activity, as measured by zymography, showed that activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 decreased in ALS-L1023-treated cells. ALS-L1023 also inhibited MMP-2 and MMP-9 reporter gene expression in the presence of the MMP inducer phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. An in vivo study showed that ALS-L1023 not only decreased adipose tissue mass and adipocyte size, but also reduced mRNA levels of adipose tissue angiogenic factors and MMPs in HFD-fed obese mice. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the anti-angiogenic herbal extract ALS-L1023 suppresses adipogenesis and adipocyte hypertrophy, and this effect may be mediated by inhibiting angiogenesis and MMP activities. Thus, by curbing adipogenesis, anti-angiogenic ALS-L1023 yields a possible therapeutic choice for the prevention and treatment of human obesity and its associated conditions.

Reduction of Adipose Tissue Mass by the Angiogenesis Inhibitor ALS-L1023 from Melissa officinalis.

It has been suggested that angiogenesis modulates adipogenesis and obesity. This study was undertaken to determine whether ALS-L1023 (ALS) prepared by a two-step organic solvent fractionation from Melissa leaves, which exhibits antiangiogenic activity, can regulate adipose tissue growth. The effects of ALS on angiogenesis and extracellular matrix remodeling were measured using in vitro assays. The effects of ALS on adipose tissue growth were investigated in high fat diet-induced obese mice. ALS inhibited VEGF- and bFGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation and suppressed matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in vitro. Compared to obese control mice, administration of ALS to obese mice reduced body weight gain, adipose tissue mass and adipocyte size without affecting appetite. ALS treatment decreased blood vessel density and MMP activity in adipose tissues. ALS reduced the mRNA levels of angiogenic factors (VEGF-A and FGF-2) and MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9), whereas ALS increased the mRNA levels of angiogenic inhibitors (TSP-1, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2) in adipose tissues. The protein levels of VEGF, MMP-2 and MMP-9 were also decreased by ALS in adipose tissue. Metabolic changes in plasma lipids, liver triglycerides, and hepatic expression of fatty acid oxidation genes occurred during ALS-induced weight loss. These results suggest that ALS, which has antiangiogenic and MMP inhibitory activities, reduces adipose tissue mass in nutritionally obese mice, demonstrating that adipose tissue growth can be regulated by angiogenesis inhibitors.

Proteomic characterization of the outer membrane vesicle of Pseudomonas putida KT2440.

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are produced by various pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii. In this study, we isolated OMVs from a representative soil bacterium, Pseudomonas putida KT2440, which has a biodegradative activity toward various aromatic compounds. Proteomic analysis identified the outer membrane proteins (OMPs) OprC, OprD, OprE, OprF, OprH, OprG, and OprW as major components of the OMV of P. putida KT2440. The production of OMVs was dependent on the nutrient availability in the culture media, and the up- or down-regulation of specific OMPs was observed according to the culture conditions. In particular, porins (e.g., benzoate-specific porin, BenF-like porin) and enzymes (e.g., catechol 1,2-dioxygenase, benzoate dioxygenase) for benzoate degradation were uniquely found in OMVs prepared from P. putida KT2440 that were cultured in media containing benzoate as the energy source. OMVs of P. putida KT2440 showed low pathological activity toward cultured cells that originated from human lung cells, which suggests their potential as adjuvants or OMV vaccine carriers. Our results suggest that the protein composition of the OMVs of P. putida KT2440 reflects the characteristics of the total proteome of P. putida KT2440.

Inhibition of CYP4A reduces hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress and features of diabetes in mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. ER stress activates the unfolded protein response pathway, which contributes to apoptosis and insulin resistance. We investigated the roles of cytochrome P450 4A (CYP4A) in the regulation of hepatic ER stress, insulin resistance, and the development of diabetes in mice. METHODS: We used mass spectrometry to compare levels of CYP450 proteins in livers from C57BL/6J and C57BL/KsJ-db/db (db/db) mice; findings were confirmed by immunoblot and real-time PCR analyses. To create a model of diet-induced diabetes, C57BL/6J mice were placed on high-fat diets. Mice were given intraperitoneal injections of an inhibitor (HET0016) or an inducer (clofibrate) of CYP4A, or tail injections of small hairpin RNAs against CYP4A messenger RNA; liver tissues were collected and analyzed for ER stress, insulin resistance, and apoptosis. The effect of HET0016 and CYP4A knockdown also were analyzed in HepG2 cells. RESULTS: Levels of the CYP4A isoforms were highly up-regulated in livers of db/db mice compared with C57BL/6J mice. Inhibition of CYP4A in db/db and mice on high-fat diets reduced features of diabetes such as insulin hypersecretion, hepatic steatosis, and increased glucose tolerance. CYP4A inhibition reduced levels of ER stress, insulin resistance, and apoptosis in the livers of diabetic mice; it also restored hepatic functions. Inversely, induction of CYP4A accelerated ER stress, insulin resistance, and apoptosis in livers of db/db mice. CONCLUSIONS: CYP4A proteins are up-regulated in livers of mice with genetically induced and diet-induced diabetes. Inhibition of CYP4A in mice reduces hepatic ER stress, apoptosis, insulin resistance, and steatosis. Strategies to reduce levels or activity of CYP4A proteins in liver might be developed for treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes.

Characterization of Streptococcus pneumoniae N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase as a novel diagnostic marker.

The identification of novel diagnostic markers of pathogenic bacteria is essential for improving the accuracy of diagnoses and for developing targeted vaccines. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a significant human pathogenic bacterium that causes pneumonia. N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase (NagA) was identified in a protein mixture secreted by S. pneumoniae and its strong immunogenicity was confirmed in an immuno-proteomic assay against the anti-serum of the secreted protein mixture. In this study, recombinant S. pneumoniae NagA protein was expressed and purified to analyze its protein characteristics, immunospecificity, and immunogenicity, thereby facilitating its evaluation as a novel diagnostic marker for S. pneumoniae. Mass spectrometry analysis showed that S. pneumoniae NagA contains four internal disulfide bonds and that it does not undergo post-translational modification. S. pneumoniae NagA antibodies successfully detected NagA from different S. pneumoniae strains, whereas NagA from other pathogenic bacteria species was not detected. In addition, mice infected with S. pneumoniae generated NagA antibodies in an effective manner. These results suggest that NagA has potential as a novel diagnostic marker for S. pneumoniae because of its high immunogenicity and immunospecificity.

Proteomic and bioinformatic analysis of membrane proteome in type 2 diabetic mouse liver.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is the most prevalent and serious metabolic disease affecting people worldwide. T2DM results from insulin resistance of the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. In this study, we used proteomic and bioinformatic methodologies to identify novel hepatic membrane proteins that are related to the development of hepatic insulin resistance, steatosis, and T2DM. Using FT-ICR MS, we identified 95 significantly differentially expressed proteins in the membrane fraction of normal and T2DM db/db mouse liver. These proteins are primarily involved in energy metabolism pathways, molecular transport, and cellular signaling, and many of them have not previously been reported in diabetic studies. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that 16 proteins may be related to the regulation of insulin signaling in the liver. In addition, six proteins are associated with energy stress-induced, nine proteins with inflammatory stress-induced, and 14 proteins with endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced hepatic insulin resistance. Moreover, we identified 19 proteins that may regulate hepatic insulin resistance in a c-Jun amino-terminal kinase-dependent manner. In addition, three proteins, 14-3-3 protein beta (YWHAB), Slc2a4 (GLUT4), and Dlg4 (PSD-95), are discovered by comprehensive bioinformatic analysis, which have correlations with several proteins identified by proteomics approach. The newly identified proteins in T2DM should provide additional insight into the development and pathophysiology of hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance, and they may serve as useful diagnostic markers and/or therapeutic targets for these diseases.

Analysis of the endoplasmic reticulum subproteome in the livers of type 2 diabetic mice.

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease that results from insulin resistance in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue and relative insulin deficiency. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays a crucial role in the regulation of the cellular response to insulin. Recently, ER stress has been known to reduce the insulin sensitivity of the liver and lead to type 2 diabetes. However, detailed mechanisms of ER stress response that leads to type 2 diabetes remains unknown. To obtain a global view of ER function in type 2 diabetic liver and identify proteins that may be responsible for hepatic ER stress and insulin resistance, we performed proteomics analysis of mouse liver ER using nano UPLC-MSE. A total of 1584 proteins were identified in control C57 and type 2 diabetic db/db mice livers. Comparison of the rER and sER proteomes from normal mice showed that proteins involved in protein synthesis and metabolic process were enriched in the rER, while those associated with transport and cellular homeostasis were localized to the sER. In addition, proteins involved in protein folding and ER stress were found only in the rER. In the livers of db/db mice, however, the functions of the rER and sER were severely disrupted, including the capacity to resolve ER stress. These results provide new insight into the research on hepatic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes and are suggestive of the potential use of the differentially expressed hepatic ER proteins as biomarkers for hepatic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.

Analysis of the expression of microtubule plus-end tracking proteins (+TIPs) during Xenopus laevis embryogenesis.

Microtubules are a component of the cytoskeleton and are important for maintaining cell structure and providing platforms for intracellular transport in diverse cellular processes. Microtubule plus-end tracking proteins (+TIPs), a structurally and functionally diverse group of proteins, are specifically accumulated in the microtubule plus end and regulate dynamic microtubule behavior. We characterized the +TIPs, Clip1, p150(glued), Clasp1, Lis1 and Stim1, in Xenopus laevis and report their expression patterns during embryogenesis in this paper. All the five +TIP genes are maternally expressed and have similar expression patterns during Xenopus embryo development. The expression of +TIPs is localized in the animal hemisphere and ectoderm region at early stages of embryonic development. As development progresses to later stages, the ectodermal expression of +TIPs persists in head and neural tube structures. Clasp1, p150(glued) and Lis1 in particular are specifically expressed in the cranial nerves. Importantly, +TIPs are also expressed in the involuting mesoderm during gastrulation. This is the first study of developmental expression patterns of +TIPs, and our analysis provides insight that could serve as the basis for future research of microtubules in vertebrate development, cell movements during gastrulation and neurogenesis.

Chemerin analog regulates energy metabolism in sheep.

Accumulating data suggest a relationship between chemerin and energy metabolism. Our group previously described gene cloning, expression analysis and the regulatory mechanism of chemerin and its own receptor in mice and cattle. The objective of the present study was to investigate the physiological effect of chemerin on endocrine changes and energy metabolism in sheep using a biologically stable chemerin analog. The chemerin analog was intravenously administrated (100 or 500 µg/head) to sheep, and plasma insulin and metabolites (glucose, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglyceride, total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol) were analyzed. The chemerin analog dramatically increased the insulin levels, and glucose levels were decreased. NEFA levels were slightly decreased at 20 min but then increased gradually from 60 to 180 min after analog administration. In addition, injection of the chemerin analog immediately increased triglyceride and total cholesterol but not HDL levels. These results suggested that chemerin analog regulated insulin secretion related to glucose metabolism and the release of triglycerides in sheep in vivo. This study provides new information about endocrine and metabolic changes in response to chemerin in sheep.

The herbal composition GGEx18 from Laminaria japonica, Rheum palmatum, and Ephedra sinica reduces obesity via skeletal muscle AMPK and PPARα.

CONTEXT: Since AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation in skeletal muscle of obese rodents stimulates fatty acid oxidation, it is reasonable to hypothesize that pharmacological activation of AMPK might be of therapeutic benefit in obesity. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of the traditional Korean anti-obesity drug GGEx18, a mixture of three herbs, Laminaria japonica Aresch (Laminariaceae), Rheum palmatum L. (Polygonaceae), and Ephedra sinica Stapf (Ephedraceae), on obesity and the involvement of AMPK in this process. MATERIALS AND METHODS: After high fat diet-induced obese mice were treated with GGEx18, we studied the effects of GGEx18 on body weight, fat mass, skeletal muscle lipid accumulation, and the expressions of AMPK, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ά (PPARα), and PPARα target genes. The effects of GGEx18 and/or the AMPK inhibitor compound C on lipid accumulation and expression of the above genes were measured in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. RESULTS: Administration of GGEx18 to obese mice for 9 weeks significantly (p < 0.05) decreased body and adipose tissue weights compared with obese control mice (p < 0.05). Lipid accumulation in skeletal muscle was inhibited by GGEx18. GGEx18 significantly (p < 0.05) increased skeletal muscle mRNA levels of AMPKα1 and AMPKα2 as well as PPARα and its target genes. Consistent with the in vivo data, GGEx18 inhibited lipid accumulation, and similar activation of genes was observed in GGEx18-treated C2C12 cells. However, compound C inhibited these effects in C2C12 cells. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: These results suggest that GGEx18 improves obesity through skeletal muscle AMPK and AMPK-stimulated expression of PPARα and its target enzymes for fatty acid oxidation.

The anti-angiogenic herbal extracts Ob-X from Morus alba, Melissa officinalis, and Artemisia capillaris suppresses adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

CONTEXT: Growing adipose tissue is thought to require adipogenesis, angiogenesis, and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Close examination of developing adipose tissue microvasculature reveals that angiogenesis often precedes adipogenesis. Since our previous study demonstrated that Ob-X, the anti-angiogenic herbal composition composed of Melissa officinalis L. (Labiatae), Morus alba L. (Moraceae), and Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (Compositae), reduced adipose tissue mass in obese mice, we hypothesized that adipogenesis can be inhibited by Ob-X. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of the anti-angiogenic herbal extracts Ob-X on adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: After differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with Ob-X, we studied the effects of Ob-X on triglyceride accumulation and expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, angiogenesis, and ECM remodeling. RESULTS: Treatment of cells with Ob-X inhibited lipid accumulation and adipocyte-specific gene expression caused by troglitazone or monocyte differentiation-inducing (MDI) mix. Ob-X reduced mRNA levels of angiogenic factors (vascular endothelial growth factor-A, -B, -C, -D, and fibroblast growth factor-2) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs; MMP-2 and MMP-9), whereas it increased mRNA levels of angiogenic inhibitors [(thrombospondin-1, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), and TIMP-2)] in differentiated cells. MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were also decreased in Ob-X-treated cells. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the anti-angiogenic herbal composition Ob-X inhibits differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes. These events may be mediated by changes in the expression of genes involved in lipogenesis, angiogenesis, and the MMP system. Thus, by reducing adipogenesis, anti-angiogenic Ob-X provides a possible therapeutic approach for the prevention and treatment of human obesity and its related disorders.

The Korean traditional medicine gyeongshingangjeehwan inhibits adipocyte hypertrophy and visceral adipose tissue accumulation by activating PPARalpha actions in rat white adipose tissues.

AIM OF THE STUDY: Gyeongshingangjeehwan (GGEx), which is a polyherbal drug composed of four medicinal plants, has traditionally been used as anti-obesity drug in Korean local clinics. Thus, we investigated the effects of GGEx on visceral adiposity and examined whether adipose peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) activation is involved in this process. MATERIALS AND METHODS: After Obese Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats and differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with GGEx, we studied the effects of GGEx on not only visceral white adipose tissue (WAT) mass and adipocyte size, but also the expression of adipocyte marker and PPARalpha target genes. RESULTS: Administration of GGEx to obese rats for 8 weeks decreased visceral WAT weight by 30% and the size of adipocytes in mesenteric WAT by 31% without weight changes of other organs. Concomitantly, GGEx increased mRNA levels of PPARalpha target genes responsible for fatty acid beta-oxidation in mesenteric WAT whereas decreased mRNA expression of adipocyte markers, such as PPARgamma, aP2 and leptin. Serological studies demonstrated that plasma levels of free fatty acids and triglycerides as well as insulin and glucose were decreased following GGEx treatment. Consistent with the in vivo data, GGEx increased PPARalpha reporter gene activity and induced the mRNA expression of PPARalpha target genes involved in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation in 3T3-L1 cells. GGEx also inhibited triglyceride accumulation in these cells. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that GGEx promotes the reductions in visceral fat mass and adipocyte size in obese animals, and that this event may be mediated by adipose PPARalpha activation.

Prostatic androgen-repressed message-1 as a regulator of adipocyte differentiation in the mouse.

Adipocyte differentiation is an important aspect in energy homeostasis. Although the regulation of adipocyte differentiation is relatively well understood, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, subcutaneous and epididymal adipose tissues were used to study the differential expression of associated genes. We found that the expression level of mouse homologue of rat prostatic androgen-repressed message-1 (mPARM-1) gene was higher in subcutaneous, perirenal and mesenteric adipose tissues than in epididymal adipose tissue. In mouse subcutaneous, perirenal, and mesenteric adipose tissues, the expression level of this gene was higher in adipocytes than in non-adipocyte cells, i.e. stromal-vascular cells. Furthermore, mPARM-1 mRNA expression was up-regulated in subcutaneous, mesenteric, and epididymal adipose tissues of mice fed a high-fat diet compared to those fed a normal-fat diet. Expression level of mPARM-1 mRNA increased in the early stage of the chemically induced adipocyte differentiation, preceding the increase in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma 2 (PPAR-gamma2) mRNA. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), an inhibitor of adipocyte differentiation, reduced the expression of mPARM-1 mRNA in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells and subsequently down-regulated the expression of adipogenic genes, including PPAR-gamma2, leptin and adipogenin. Moreover, knockdown of mPARM-1 expression with siRNA reduced lipid accumulation and the expression levels of PPAR-gamma2 and adipocyte protein 2 mRNAs, which suggest that the degree of adipocyte differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells has been reduced. These results indicate that mPARM-1 might be involved in the regulation of fat accumulation and adipocyte differentiation.

The regulation of adipogenesis through GPR120.

Recently, it has been found that long-chain fatty acids activate the G protein-coupled receptors (GPRs), GPR120 and GPR40. However, there have been no reports to date on the possible physiological roles of these GPRs in adipose tissue development and adipocyte differentiation. GPR120 mRNA was highly expressed in the four different adipose tissues, and the amount of mRNA was elevated in adipose tissues of mice fed a high fat diet. However, GPR40 mRNA was not detected in any of the adipose tissues. The expression of GPR120 mRNA was higher in adipocytes compared to stromal-vascular (S-V) cells. The level of GPR120 mRNA increased during adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. Similar results were observed in human adipose tissue, human preadipocytes, and cultured adipocytes. Moreover, use of a small interference RNA (siRNA) to down-regulate GPR120 expression resulted in inhibition of adipocyte differentiation. Our results suggest that GPR120 regulates adipogenic processes such as adipocyte development and differentiation.