Transient astrocyte-like NG2 glia subpopulation emerges solely following permanent brain ischemia.

NG2 glia display wide proliferation and differentiation potential under physiological and pathological conditions. Here, we examined these two features following different types of brain disorders such as focal cerebral ischemia (FCI), cortical stab wound (SW), and demyelination (DEMY) in 3-month-old mice, in which NG2 glia are labeled by tdTomato under the Cspg4 promoter. To compare NG2 glia expression profiles following different CNS injuries, we employed single-cell RT-qPCR and self-organizing Kohonen map analysis of tdTomato-positive cells isolated from the uninjured cortex/corpus callosum and those after specific injury. Such approach enabled us to distinguish two main cell populations (NG2 glia, oligodendrocytes), each of them comprising four distinct subpopulations. The gene expression profiling revealed that a subpopulation of NG2 glia expressing GFAP, a marker of reactive astrocytes, is only present transiently after FCI. However, following less severe injuries, namely the SW and DEMY, subpopulations mirroring different stages of oligodendrocyte maturation markedly prevail. Such injury-dependent incidence of distinct subpopulations was also confirmed by immunohistochemistry. To characterize this unique subpopulation of transient astrocyte-like NG2 glia, we used single-cell RNA-sequencing analysis and to disclose their basic membrane properties, the patch-clamp technique was employed. Overall, we have proved that astrocyte-like NG2 glia are a specific subpopulation of NG2 glia emerging transiently only following FCI. These cells, located in the postischemic glial scar, are active in the cell cycle and display a current pattern similar to that identified in cortical astrocytes. Astrocyte-like NG2 glia may represent important players in glial scar formation and repair processes, following ischemia.

Wnt/ß-Catenin Signaling Promotes Differentiation of Ischemia-Activated Adult Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells to Neuronal Precursors.

Modulating endogenous regenerative processes may represent a suitable treatment for central nervous system (CNS) injuries, such as stroke or trauma. Neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs), which naturally reside in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the adult brain, proliferate and differentiate to other cell types, and therefore may compensate the negative consequences of ischemic injury. The fate of NS/PCs in the developing brain is largely influenced by Wingless/Integrated (Wnt) signaling; however, its role in the differentiation of adult NS/PCs under ischemic conditions is still enigmatic. In our previous study, we identified the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway as a factor promoting neurogenesis at the expense of gliogenesis in neonatal mice. In this study, we used adult transgenic mice in order to assess the impact of the canonical Wnt pathway modulation (inhibition or hyper-activation) on NS/PCs derived from the SVZ, and combined it with the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) to disclose the effect of focal cerebral ischemia (FCI). Based on the electrophysiological properties of cultured cells, we first identified three cell types that represented in vitro differentiated NS/PCs - astrocytes, neuron-like cells, and precursor cells. Following FCI, we detected fewer neuron-like cells after Wnt signaling inhibition. Furthermore, the immunohistochemical analysis revealed an overall higher expression of cell-type-specific proteins after FCI, indicating increased proliferation and differentiation rates of NS/PCs in the SVZ. Remarkably, Wnt signaling hyper-activation increased the abundance of proliferating and neuron-like cells, while Wnt pathway inhibition had the opposite effect. Finally, the expression profiling at the single cell level revealed an increased proportion of neural stem cells and neuroblasts after FCI. These observations indicate that Wnt signaling enhances NS/PCs-based regeneration in the adult mouse brain following FCI, and supports neuronal differentiation in the SVZ.

A single-cell analysis reveals multiple roles of oligodendroglial lineage cells during post-ischemic regeneration.

NG2 cells represent precursors of oligodendrocytes under physiological conditions; however, following cerebral ischemia they play an important role in glial scar formation. Here, we compared the expression profiles of oligodendroglial lineage cells, after focal cerebral ischemia (FCI) and in Alzheimer's-like pathology using transgenic mice, which enables genetic fate-mapping of Cspg4-positive NG2 cells and their progeny, based on the expression of red fluorescent protein tdTomato. tdTomato-positive cells possessed the expression profile of NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes; however, based on the expression of cell type-specific genes, we were able to distinguish between them. To shed light on the changes in the expression patterns caused by FCI, we employed self-organizing Kohonen maps, enabling the division of NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes into subpopulations based on similarities in the expression profiles of individual cells. We identified three subpopulations of NG2 cells emerging after FCI: proliferative; astrocyte-like and oligodendrocyte-like NG2 cells; such phenotypes were further confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Oligodendrocytes themselves formed four subpopulations, which reflected the process of oligodendrocytes maturation. Finally, we used 5-ethynyl-2' deoxyuridine (EdU) labeling to reveal that NG2 cells can differentiate directly into reactive astrocytes without preceding proliferation. In contrast, in Alzheimer's-like pathology we failed to identify these subpopulations. Collectively, here we identified several yet unknown differences between the expression profiles of NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes, and characterized specific genes contributing to oligodendrocyte maturation and phenotypical changes of NG2 cells after FCI. Moreover, our results suggest that, unlike in Alzheimer's-like pathology, NG2 cells acquire a multipotent phenotype following FCI.

Multipotency and therapeutic potential of NG2 cells.

NG2 cells represent one of the most proliferative glial cell populations in the intact mammalian central nervous system (CNS). They are well-known for their ability to renew themselves or to generate new oligodendrocytes during development as well as in adulthood, therefore also being termed oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. Following CNS injuries, such as demyelination, trauma or ischemia, the proliferative capacity of NG2 cells rapidly increases and moreover, their differentiation potential broadens, as documented by numerous reports also describing their differentiation into astrocytes or even neurons. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about NG2 cells proliferation, their fate plasticity during embryogenesis as well as in postnatal CNS under physiological and pathological conditions, with the main emphasis on the role of various signaling molecules, growth factors, hormones or even neurotransmitters on the fate potential of NG2 cells.

Tamoxifen in the Mouse Brain: Implications for Fate-Mapping Studies Using the Tamoxifen-Inducible Cre-loxP System.

The tamoxifen-inducible Cre-loxP system is widely used to overcome gene targeting pre-adult lethality, to modify a specific cell population at desired time-points, and to visualize and trace cells in fate-mapping studies. In this study we focused on tamoxifen degradation kinetics, because for all genetic fate-mapping studies, the period during which tamoxifen or its metabolites remain active in the CNS, is essential. Additionally, we aimed to define the tamoxifen administration scheme, enabling the maximal recombination rate together with minimal animal mortality. The time window between tamoxifen injection and the beginning of experiments should be large enough to allow complete degradation of tamoxifen and its metabolites. Otherwise, these substances could promote an undesired recombination, leading to data misinterpretation. We defined the optimal time window, allowing the complete degradation of tamoxifen and its metabolites, such as 4-hydroxytamoxifen, N-desmethyltamoxifen, endoxifen and norendoxifen, in the mouse brain after intraperitoneal tamoxifen injection. We determined the biological activity of these substances in vitro, as well as a minimal effective concentration of the most potent metabolite 4-hydroxytamoxifen causing recombination in vivo. For this purpose, we analyzed the recombination rate in double transgenic Cspg4-cre/Esr1/ROSA26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato) mice, in which tamoxifen administration triggers the expression of red fluorescent protein in NG2-expressing cells, and employed a liquid chromatography, coupled with mass spectrometry, to determine the concentration of studied substances in the brain. We determined the degradation kinetics of these substances, and revealed that this process is influenced by mouse strains, age of animals, and dosage. Our results revealed that tamoxifen and its metabolites were completely degraded within 8 days in young adult C57BL/6J mice, while the age-matched FVB/NJ male mice displayed more effective degradation. Moreover, aged C57BL/6J mice were unable to metabolize all substances within 8 days. The lowering of initial tamoxifen dose leads to a significantly faster degradation of all studied substances. A disruption of the blood-brain barrier caused no concentration changes of any tamoxifen metabolites in the ipsilateral hemisphere. Taken together, we showed that tamoxifen metabolism in mouse brains is age-, strain- and dose-dependent, and these factors should be taken into account in the experimental design.

Manipulating Wnt signaling at different subcellular levels affects the fate of neonatal neural stem/progenitor cells.

The canonical Wnt signaling pathway plays an important role in embryogenesis, and the establishment of neurogenic niches. It is involved in proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitors, since elevated Wnt/ß-catenin signaling promotes differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs1) towards neuroblasts. Nevertheless, it remains elusive how the differentiation program of neural progenitors is influenced by the Wnt signaling output. Using transgenic mouse models, we found that in vitro activation of Wnt signaling resulted in higher expression of ß-catenin protein and Wnt/ß-catenin target genes, while Wnt signaling inhibition resulted in the reverse effect. Within differentiated cells, we identified three electrophysiologically and immunocytochemically distinct cell types, whose incidence was markedly affected by the Wnt signaling output. Activation of the pathway suppressed gliogenesis, and promoted differentiation of NS/PCs towards a neuronal phenotype, while its inhibition led to suppressed neurogenesis and increased counts of cells of glial phenotype. Moreover, Wnt signaling hyperactivation resulted in an increased incidence of cells expressing outwardly rectifying K+ currents, together with inwardly rectifying Na+ currents, a typical current pattern of immature neurons, while blocking the pathway led to the opposite effect. Taken together, our data indicate that the Wnt signaling pathway orchestrates neonatal NS/PCs differentiation towards cells with neuronal characteristics, which might be important for nervous tissue regeneration during central nervous system disorders. Furthermore, the transgenic mouse strains used in this study may serve as a convenient tool to manipulate ß-catenin-dependent signaling in neural progenitors in the neonatal brain.

Generation of reactive astrocytes from NG2 cells is regulated by sonic hedgehog.

NG2 cells, a fourth glial cell type in the adult mammalian central nervous system, produce oligodendrocytes in the healthy nervous tissue, and display wide differentiation potential under pathological conditions, where they could give rise to reactive astrocytes. The factors that control the differentiation of NG2 cells after focal cerebral ischemia (FCI) are largely unknown. Here, we used transgenic Cspg4-cre/Esr1/ROSA26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato) mice, in which tamoxifen administration triggers the expression of red fluorescent protein (tomato) specifically in NG2 cells and cells derived therefrom. Differentiation potential (in vitro and in vivo) of tomato-positive NG2 cells from control or postischemic brains was determined using the immunohistochemistry, single cell RT-qPCR and patch-clamp method. The ischemic injury was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion, a model of FCI. Using genetic fate-mapping method, we identified sonic hedgehog (Shh) as an important factor that influences differentiation of NG2 cells into astrocytes in vitro. We also manipulated Shh signaling in the adult mouse brain after FCI. Shh signaling activation significantly increased the number of astrocytes derived from NG2 cells in the glial scar around the ischemic lesion, while Shh signaling inhibition caused the opposite effect. Since Shh signaling modifications did not change the proliferation rate of NG2 cells, we can conclude that Shh has a direct influence on the differentiation of NG2 cells and therefore, on the formation and composition of a glial scar, which consequently affects the degree of the brain damage. GLIA 2016;64:1518-1531.

Quantitative Analysis of Glutamate Receptors in Glial Cells from the Cortex of GFAP/EGFP Mice Following Ischemic Injury: Focus on NMDA Receptors.

Cortical glial cells contain both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Despite several efforts, a comprehensive analysis of the entire family of glutamate receptors and their subunits present in glial cells is still missing. Here, we provide an overall picture of the gene expression of ionotropic (AMPA, kainate, NMDA) and the main metabotropic glutamate receptors in cortical glial cells isolated from GFAP/EGFP mice before and after focal cerebral ischemia. Employing single-cell RT-qPCR, we detected the expression of genes encoding subunits of glutamate receptors in GFAP/EGFP-positive (GFAP/EGFP(+)) glial cells in the cortex of young adult mice. Most of the analyzed cells expressed mRNA for glutamate receptor subunits, the expression of which, in most cases, even increased after ischemic injury. Data analyses disclosed several classes of GFAP/EGFP(+) glial cells with respect to glutamate receptors and revealed in what manner their expression correlates with the expression of glial markers prior to and after ischemia. Furthermore, we also examined the protein expression and functional significance of NMDA receptors in glial cells. Immunohistochemical analyses of all seven NMDA receptor subunits provided direct evidence that the GluN3A subunit is present in GFAP/EGFP(+) glial cells and that its expression is increased after ischemia. In situ and in vitro Ca(2+) imaging revealed that Ca(2+) elevations evoked by the application of NMDA were diminished in GFAP/EGFP(+) glial cells following ischemia. Our results provide a comprehensive description of glutamate receptors in cortical GFAP/EGFP(+) glial cells and may serve as a basis for further research on glial cell physiology and pathophysiology.

Altered astrocytic swelling in the cortex of α-syntrophin-negative GFAP/EGFP mice.

Brain edema accompanying ischemic or traumatic brain injuries, originates from a disruption of ionic/neurotransmitter homeostasis that leads to accumulation of K(+) and glutamate in the extracellular space. Their increased uptake, predominantly provided by astrocytes, is associated with water influx via aquaporin-4 (AQP4). As the removal of perivascular AQP4 via the deletion of α-syntrophin was shown to delay edema formation and K(+) clearance, we aimed to elucidate the impact of α-syntrophin knockout on volume changes in individual astrocytes in situ evoked by pathological stimuli using three dimensional confocal morphometry and changes in the extracellular space volume fraction (α) in situ and in vivo in the mouse cortex employing the real-time iontophoretic method. RT-qPCR profiling was used to reveal possible differences in the expression of ion channels/transporters that participate in maintaining ionic/neurotransmitter homeostasis. To visualize individual astrocytes in mice lacking α-syntrophin we crossbred GFAP/EGFP mice, in which the astrocytes are labeled by the enhanced green fluorescent protein under the human glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter, with α-syntrophin knockout mice. Three-dimensional confocal morphometry revealed that α-syntrophin deletion results in significantly smaller astrocyte swelling when induced by severe hypoosmotic stress, oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) or 50 mM K(+). As for the mild stimuli, such as mild hypoosmotic or hyperosmotic stress or 10 mM K(+), α-syntrophin deletion had no effect on astrocyte swelling. Similarly, evaluation of relative α changes showed a significantly smaller decrease in α-syntrophin knockout mice only during severe pathological conditions, but not during mild stimuli. In summary, the deletion of α-syntrophin markedly alters astrocyte swelling during severe hypoosmotic stress, OGD or high K(+).

Increased expression of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels in reactive astrocytes following ischemia.

Astrocytes respond to ischemic brain injury by proliferation, the increased expression of intermediate filaments and hypertrophy, which results in glial scar formation. In addition, they alter the expression of ion channels, receptors and transporters that maintain ionic/neurotransmitter homeostasis. Here, we aimed to demonstrate the expression of Hcn1-4 genes encoding hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels in reactive astrocytes following focal cerebral ischemia (FCI) or global cerebral ischemia (GCI) and to characterize their functional properties. A permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCAo) was employed to induce FCI in adult GFAP/EGFP mice, while GCI was induced by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion combined with hypoxia in adult rats. Using FACS, we isolated astrocytes from non-injured or ischemic brains and performed gene expression profiling using single-cell RT-qPCR. We showed that 2 weeks after ischemia reactive astrocytes express high levels of Hcn1-4 transcripts, while immunohistochemical analyses confirmed the presence of HCN1-3 channels in reactive astrocytes 5 weeks after ischemia. Electrophysiological recordings revealed that post-ischemic astrocytes are significantly depolarized, and compared with astrocytes from non-injured brains, they display large hyperpolarization-activated inward currents, the density of which increased 2-3-fold in response to ischemia. Their activation was facilitated by cAMP and their amplitudes were decreased by ZD7288 or low extracellular Na(+) concentration, suggesting that they may belong to the family of HCN channels. Collectively, our results demonstrate that regardless of the type of ischemic injury, reactive astrocytes express HCN channels, which could therefore be an important therapeutic target in poststroke therapy.

NMDA Receptors in Glial Cells: Pending Questions.

Glutamate receptors of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) type are involved in many cognitive processes, including behavior, learning and synaptic plasticity. For a long time NMDA receptors were thought to be the privileged domain of neurons; however, discoveries of the last 25 years have demonstrated their active role in glial cells as well. Despite the large number of studies in the field, there are many unresolved questions connected with NMDA receptors in glia that are still a matter of debate. The main objective of this review is to shed light on these controversies by summarizing results from all relevant works concerning astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and polydendrocytes (also known as NG2 glial cells) in experimental animals, further extended by studies performed on human glia. The results are divided according to the study approach to enable a better comparison of how findings obtained at the mRNA level correspond with protein expression or functionality. Furthermore, special attention is focused on the NMDA receptor subunits present in the particular glial cell types, which give them special characteristics different from those of neurons - for example, the absence of Mg(2+) block and decreased Ca(2+) permeability. Since glial cells are implicated in important physiological and pathophysiological roles in the central nervous system (CNS), the last part of this review provides an overview of glial NMDA receptors with respect to ischemic brain injury.

Heterogeneity of astrocytes: from development to injury - single cell gene expression.

Astrocytes perform control and regulatory functions in the central nervous system; heterogeneity among them is still a matter of debate due to limited knowledge of their gene expression profiles and functional diversity. To unravel astrocyte heterogeneity during postnatal development and after focal cerebral ischemia, we employed single-cell gene expression profiling in acutely isolated cortical GFAP/EGFP-positive cells. Using a microfluidic qPCR platform, we profiled 47 genes encoding glial markers and ion channels/transporters/receptors participating in maintaining K(+) and glutamate homeostasis per cell. Self-organizing maps and principal component analyses revealed three subpopulations within 10-50 days of postnatal development (P10-P50). The first subpopulation, mainly immature glia from P10, was characterized by high transcriptional activity of all studied genes, including polydendrocytic markers. The second subpopulation (mostly from P20) was characterized by low gene transcript levels, while the third subpopulation encompassed mature astrocytes (mainly from P30, P50). Within 14 days after ischemia (D3, D7, D14), additional astrocytic subpopulations were identified: resting glia (mostly from P50 and D3), transcriptionally active early reactive glia (mainly from D7) and permanent reactive glia (solely from D14). Following focal cerebral ischemia, reactive astrocytes underwent pronounced changes in the expression of aquaporins, nonspecific cationic and potassium channels, glutamate receptors and reactive astrocyte markers.

The increased activity of TRPV4 channel in the astrocytes of the adult rat hippocampus after cerebral hypoxia/ischemia.

The polymodal transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channel, a member of the TRP channel family, is a calcium-permeable cationic channel that is gated by various stimuli such as cell swelling, low pH and high temperature. Therefore, TRPV4-mediated calcium entry may be involved in neuronal and glia pathophysiology associated with various disorders of the central nervous system, such as ischemia. The TRPV4 channel has been recently found in adult rat cortical and hippocampal astrocytes; however, its role in astrocyte pathophysiology is still not defined. In the present study, we examined the impact of cerebral hypoxia/ischemia (H/I) on the functional expression of astrocytic TRPV4 channels in the adult rat hippocampal CA1 region employing immunohistochemical analyses, the patch-clamp technique and microfluorimetric intracellular calcium imaging on astrocytes in slices as well as on those isolated from sham-operated or ischemic hippocampi. Hypoxia/ischemia was induced by a bilateral 15-minute occlusion of the common carotids combined with hypoxic conditions. Our immunohistochemical analyses revealed that 7 days after H/I, the expression of TRPV4 is markedly enhanced in hippocampal astrocytes of the CA1 region and that the increasing TRPV4 expression coincides with the development of astrogliosis. Additionally, adult hippocampal astrocytes in slices or cultured hippocampal astrocytes respond to the TRPV4 activator 4-alpha-phorbol-12,-13-didecanoate (4αPDD) by an increase in intracellular calcium and the activation of a cationic current, both of which are abolished by the removal of extracellular calcium or exposure to TRP antagonists, such as Ruthenium Red or RN1734. Following hypoxic/ischemic injury, the responses of astrocytes to 4αPDD are significantly augmented. Collectively, we show that TRPV4 channels are involved in ischemia-induced calcium entry in reactive astrocytes and thus, might participate in the pathogenic mechanisms of astroglial reactivity following ischemic insult.

Polydendrocytes display large lineage plasticity following focal cerebral ischemia.

Polydendrocytes (also known as NG2 glial cells) constitute a fourth major glial cell type in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) that is distinct from other cell types. Although much evidence suggests that these cells are multipotent in vitro, their differentiation potential in vivo under physiological or pathophysiological conditions is still controversial.To follow the fate of polydendrocytes after CNS pathology, permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo), a commonly used model of focal cerebral ischemia, was carried out on adult NG2creBAC:ZEG double transgenic mice, in which enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is expressed in polydendrocytes and their progeny. The phenotype of the EGFP(+) cells was analyzed using immunohistochemistry and the patch-clamp technique 3, 7 and 14 days after MCAo. In sham-operated mice (control), EGFP(+) cells in the cortex expressed protein markers and displayed electrophysiological properties of polydendrocytes and oligodendrocytes. We did not detect any co-labeling of EGFP with neuronal, microglial or astroglial markers in this region, thus proving polydendrocyte unipotent differentiation potential under physiological conditions. Three days after MCAo the number of EGFP(+) cells in the gliotic tissue dramatically increased when compared to control animals, and these cells displayed properties of proliferating cells. However, in later phases after MCAo a large subpopulation of EGFP(+) cells expressed protein markers and electrophysiological properties of astrocytes that contribute to the formation of glial scar. Importantly, some EGFP(+) cells displayed membrane properties typical for neural precursor cells, and moreover these cells expressed doublecortin (DCX)--a marker of newly-derived neuronal cells. Taken together, our data indicate that polydendrocytes in the dorsal cortex display multipotent differentiation potential after focal ischemia.

Distinct expression/function of potassium and chloride channels contributes to the diverse volume regulation in cortical astrocytes of GFAP/EGFP mice.

Recently, we have identified two astrocytic subpopulations in the cortex of GFAP-EGFP mice, in which the astrocytes are visualized by the enhanced green-fluorescent protein (EGFP) under the control of the human glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promotor. These astrocytic subpopulations, termed high response- (HR-) and low response- (LR-) astrocytes, differed in the extent of their swelling during oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). In the present study we focused on identifying the ion channels or transporters that might underlie the different capabilities of these two astrocytic subpopulations to regulate their volume during OGD. Using three-dimensional confocal morphometry, which enables quantification of the total astrocytic volume, the effects of selected inhibitors of K⁺ and Cl⁻ channels/transporters or glutamate transporters on astrocyte volume changes were determined during 20 minute-OGD in situ. The inhibition of volume regulated anion channels (VRACs) and two-pore domain potassium channels (K(2P)) highlighted their distinct contributions to volume regulation in HR-/LR-astrocytes. While the inhibition of VRACs or K(2P) channels revealed their contribution to the swelling of HR-astrocytes, in LR-astrocytes they were both involved in anion/K⁺ effluxes. Additionally, the inhibition of Na⁺-K⁺-Cl⁻ co-transporters in HR-astrocytes led to a reduction of cell swelling, but it had no effect on LR-astrocyte volume. Moreover, employing real-time single-cell quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), we characterized the expression profiles of EGFP-positive astrocytes with a focus on those ion channels and transporters participating in astrocyte swelling and volume regulation. The PCR data revealed the existence of two astrocytic subpopulations markedly differing in their gene expression levels for inwardly rectifying K⁺ channels (Kir4.1), K(2P) channels (TREK-1 and TWIK-1) and Cl⁻ channels (ClC2). Thus, we propose that the diverse volume changes displayed by cortical astrocytes during OGD mainly result from their distinct expression patterns of ClC2 and K(2P) channels.

Neural stem/progenitor cells derived from the embryonic dorsal telencephalon of D6/GFP mice differentiate primarily into neurons after transplantation into a cortical lesion.

D6 is a promoter/enhancer of the mDach1 gene that is involved in the development of the neocortex and hippocampus. It is expressed by proliferating neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) of the cortex at early stages of neurogenesis. The differentiation potential of NSPCs isolated from embryonic day 12 mouse embryos, in which the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) is driven by the D6 promoter/enhancer, has been studied in vitro and after transplantation into the intact adult rat brain as well as into the site of a photochemical lesion. The electrophysiological properties of D6/GFP-derived cells were studied using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique, and immunohistochemical analyses were carried out. D6/GFP-derived neurospheres expressed markers of radial glia and gave rise predominantly to immature neurons and GFAP-positive cells during in vitro differentiation. One week after transplantation into the intact brain or into the site of a photochemical lesion, transplanted cells expressed only neuronal markers. D6/GFP-derived neurons were characterised by the expression of tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na(+)-currents and K (A)- and K (DR) currents sensitive to 4-aminopyridine. They were able to fire repetitive action potentials and responded to the application of GABA. Our results indicate that after transplantation into the site of a photochemical lesion, D6/GFP-derived NSPCs survive and differentiate into neurons, and their membrane properties are comparable to those transplanted into the non-injured cortex. Therefore, region-specific D6/GFP-derived NSPCs represent a promising tool for studying neurogenesis and cell replacement in a damaged cellular environment.