Albuminuria-lowering effect of dapagliflozin, exenatide, and their combination in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized cross-over clinical study.

AIM: To evaluate the albuminuria-lowering effect of dapagliflozin, exenatide, and the combination of dapagliflozin and exenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria. METHODS: Participants with type 2 diabetes, an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of more than 30 ml/min/1.73m2 and an urinary albumin: creatinine ratio (UACR) of more than 3.5 mg/mmol and 100 mg/mmol or less completed three 6-week treatment periods, during which dapagliflozin 10 mg/d, exenatide 2 mg/wk and both drugs combined were given in random order. The primary outcome was the percentage change in UACR. Secondary outcomes included blood pressure, HbA1c, body weight, extracellular volume, fractional lithium excretion and renal haemodynamic variables as determined by magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: We enrolled 20 patients, who completed 53 treatment periods in total. Mean percentage change in UACR from baseline was -21.9% (95% CI: -34.8% to -6.4%) during dapagliflozin versus -7.7% (95% CI: -23.5% to 11.2%) during exenatide and -26.0% (95% CI: -38.4% to -11.0%) during dapagliflozin-exenatide treatment. No correlation was observed in albuminuria responses between the different treatments. Numerically greater reductions in systolic blood pressure, body weight and eGFR were observed during dapagliflozin-exenatide treatment compared with dapagliflozin or exenatide alone. Renal blood flow and effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) did not significantly change with either treatment regimen. However, all but four and two patients in the dapagliflozin and dapagliflozin-exenatide groups, respectively, showed reductions in ERPF. The filtration fraction did not change during treatment with dapagliflozin or exenatide, and decreased during dapagliflozin-exenatide treatment (-1.6% [95% CI: -3.2% to -0.01%]; P = .048). CONCLUSIONS: In participants with type 2 diabetes and albuminuria, treatment with dapagliflozin, exenatide and dapagliflozin-exenatide reduced albuminuria, with a numerically larger reduction in the combined dapagliflozin-exenatide treatment group.

Less Timely Initiation of Glucose-Lowering Medication Among Younger and Male Patients With Diabetes and Similar Initiation of Blood Pressure-Lowering Medication Across Age and Sex: Trends Between 2015 and 2020.

Aims: We aimed to assess trends in glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) thresholds at initiation of glucose- and blood pressure-lowering medication among patients with type 2 diabetes and assess the influence of age and sex on these trends. Materials and Methods: We used the Groningen Initiative to ANalyze Type 2 diabetes Treatment (GIANTT) primary care database. Patients initiating a first non-insulin glucose-lowering or any blood pressure-lowering medication between 2015 and 2020 with an HbA1c or SBP measurement in the 120 days before initiation were included. We used multilevel regression analyses adjusted for potential confounders to assess the influence of calendar year, age or sex, and the interaction between calendar year and age or sex on trends in HbA1c and SBP thresholds at initiation of medication. Results: We included 2,671 and 2,128 patients in the analyses of HbA1c and SBP thresholds, respectively. The overall mean HbA1c threshold at initiation of glucose-lowering medication significantly increased from 7.4% in 2015 to 8.0% in 2020 (p < 0.001), and particularly in the younger age groups. Compared to patients ≥80 years, patients aged 60-69 years initiated medication at lower levels mainly in the early years. Patients <60 years and between 70-79 years initiated medication at similar levels as patients ≥80 years. Females initiated medication at lower levels than males throughout the study period (p < 0.001). The mean SBP threshold at initiation of blood pressure-lowering medication varied from 145 to 149 mmHg without a clear trend (p = 0.676). There were no differences in SBP thresholds between patients of different ages or sex. Conclusion: The rising trend in the HbA1c threshold for initiating glucose-lowering medication in the lower age groups was unexpected and requires further investigation. Males appear to receive less timely initiation of glucose-lowering medication than females. The lack of higher thresholds for the oldest age group or lower thresholds for the youngest age group in recent years is not in line with the age-related recommendations for personalized diabetes care and calls for health systems interventions.

Pregnancy Outcomes: Effects of Metformin (POEM) study: a protocol for a long-term, multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial in gestational diabetes mellitus.

INTRODUCTION: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common disorder of pregnancy with health risks for mother and child during pregnancy, delivery and further lifetime, possibly leading to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Current treatment is focused on reducing hyperglycaemia, by dietary and lifestyle intervention and, if glycaemic targets are not reached, insulin. Metformin is an oral blood glucose lowering drug and considered safe during pregnancy. It improves insulin sensitivity and has shown advantages, specifically regarding pregnancy-related outcomes and patient satisfaction, compared with insulin therapy. However, the role of metformin in addition to usual care is inconclusive and long-term outcome of metformin exposure in utero are lacking. The primary aim of this study is to investigate the early addition of metformin on pregnancy and long-term outcomes in GDM. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The Pregnancy Outcomes: Effects of Metformin study is a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled trial. Participants include women with GDM, between 16 and 32 weeks of gestation, who are randomised to either usual care or metformin added to usual care, with insulin rescue in both groups. Metformin is given up to 1 year after delivery. The study consists of three phases (A-C): A-until 6 weeks after delivery; B-until 1 year after delivery; C-observational study until 20 years after delivery. During phase A, the primary outcome is a composite score consisting of: (1) pregnancy-related hypertension, (2) large for gestational age neonate, (3) preterm delivery, (4) instrumental delivery, (5) caesarean delivery, (6) birth trauma, (7) neonatal hypoglycaemia, (8) neonatal intensive care admission. During phase B and C the primary outcome is the incidence of T2DM and (weight) development in mother and child. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by the Central Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects in the Netherlands. Results will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT02947503.

Older Age, Polypharmacy, and Low Systolic Blood Pressure Are Associated With More Hypotension-Related Adverse Events in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Treated With Antihypertensives.

Background and Aims: Low systolic blood pressure (SBP) levels while being treated with antihypertensives may cause hypotension-related adverse events (hrAEs), especially in the elderly, women, and frail patients. We aimed to assess the association between the occurrence of hrAEs and low SBP levels, age, sex, and polypharmacy among patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) treated with antihypertensives. Methods: In this cohort study, we used the Groningen Initiative to ANalyse Type 2 diabetes Treatment (GIANTT) database which includes patients managed for T2D in primary care from the north of the Netherlands. Patients treated with ≥1 antihypertensive drug and ≥1 SBP measurement between 2012 and 2014 were included. The outcome was the presence of an hrAE, i.e. postural hypotension, dizziness, weakness/tiredness, and syncope in 90 days before or after the lowest recorded SBP level. Age (≥70 vs. <70 years), sex (women vs. men), polypharmacy (5-9 drugs or ≥10 drugs vs. <5 drugs), and SBP level (<130 or ≥130 mmHg) were included as determinants. Logistic regression analyses were conducted for age, sex and polypharmacy, including the SBP level and their interaction, adjusted for confounders. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) are presented. Results: We included 21,119 patients, 49% of which were ≥70 years old, 52% were women, 57% had polypharmacy, 61% had an SBP level <130 mmHg and 5.4% experienced an hrAE. Patients with an SBP level <130 mmHg had a significantly higher occurrence of hrAEs than patients with a higher SBP level (6.2 vs. 4.0%; ORs 1.41, 95%CI 1.14-1.75, 1.43, 95%CI 1.17-1.76 and 1.33, 95%CI 1.06-1.67 by age, sex, and polypharmacy, respectively). Older patients (OR 1.29, 95%CI 1.02-1.64) and patients with polypharmacy (OR 5-9 drugs 1.27, 95%CI 1.00-1.62; OR ≥10 drugs 2.37, 95% CI 1.67-3.37) were more likely to experience an hrAE. The association with sex and the interactions between the determinants and SBP level were not significant. Conclusion: Low SBP levels in patients with T2D treated with antihypertensives is associated with an increase in hrAEs. Older patients and those with polypharmacy are particularly at risk of hrAEs. Age, sex, and polypharmacy did not modify the risk of hrAEs associated with a low SBP level.

Renal haemodynamic response to sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibition does not depend on protein intake: An analysis of three randomized controlled trials.

High protein intake may increase intraglomerular pressure through dilation of the afferent arteriole. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors may reduce intraglomerular pressure through activation of tubuloglomerular feedback. Given these opposing effects, we assessed whether the effect of dapagliflozin on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) was modified by estimated dietary protein intake using data from three separate randomized controlled trials (DELIGHT, IMPROVE and DIAMOND). The median protein intake was 58.4, 63.6 and 90.0 g/d, respectively. In the DELIGHT trial (n = 233), dapagliflozin compared to placebo caused an acute and reversible dip in GFR of 2.1 and 2.2 mL/min/1.73 m2 , and reduced UACR by 20.5% and 28.4% in participants with high and low protein intake, respectively. Similarly, in IMPROVE (n = 30) and DIAMOND (n = 53), the effect of dapagliflozin on GFR and UACR was comparable in participants with high and low protein intake (all P for interaction > 0.40). This post hoc, exploratory analysis of three clinical trials suggests that dietary protein intake does not modify the individual response of clinical kidney variables to dapagliflozin.

Effect of exenatide twice daily and dapagliflozin, alone and in combination, on markers of kidney function in obese patients with type 2 diabetes: A prespecified secondary analysis of a randomized controlled clinical trial.

AIMS: To evaluate the effects of separate and combined use of the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor dapagliflozin and the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) exenatide on measures of kidney function. METHODS: In this prespecified secondary analysis of the DECREASE trial, we enrolled 66 obese patients with type 2 diabetes in a 16-week randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial to investigate the effects of dapagliflozin and exenatide twice daily, alone or in combination, versus placebo on 24-hour urinary albumin:creatinine ratio (UACR), creatinine and cystatin C-estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and kidney injury molecule-1:creatinine ratio (KIM-1:Cr). RESULTS: At week 16, the mean UACR change from baseline was -39.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] -58.6, -11.9; P = 0.001) in the combined exenatide-dapagliflozin group, -18.1% (95% CI -43.1, 18.0; P = 0.278) in the dapagliflozin group, -15.6% (95% CI -41.4, 21.6; P = 0.357) in the exenatide group and - 11.0% (95% CI -39.8, 31.5; P = 0.552) in the placebo group. Compared to placebo, UACR difference at week 16 in the exenatide-dapagliflozin group was -32.2% (95% CI -60.7, 16.9; P = 0.159). Effects were similar in 37 participants who were using angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers at baseline. Compared to placebo, in the exenatide-dapagliflozin group, an acute dip in estimated GFR was observed with creatinine-estimated GFR (-4.0 mL/min/1.73 m2 [95% CI -9.3, 1.2]; P = 0.129) and cystatin C-estimated GFR (-10.4 mL/min/1.73 m2 [95% CI -14.9, -5.8]; P < 0.001). The mean KIM-1:Cr difference in the combined treatment arm versus placebo was -43.8% (95% CI -73.5, 18.9; P = 0.129). CONCLUSION: This prespecified secondary analysis suggests that combined therapy with exenatide and dapagliflozin may have synergistic effects on markers of kidney function compared to either therapy alone or placebo in obese patients with type 2 diabetes.

Sex Differences in Lipid Profile across the Life Span in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Primary Care-Based Study.

We assessed sex differences across the life span in the lipid profile of type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients treated and not treated with statins. We used the Groningen Initiative to ANalyze Type 2 diabetes Treatment database, which includes T2D patients from the north of the Netherlands. Patients with a full lipid profile determined between 2010 and 2012 were included. We excluded patients treated with other lipid-lowering drugs than statins. Sex differences in low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c and HDL-c) and triglyceride (TG) levels across 11 age groups stratified by statin treatment were assessed using linear regression. We included 26,849 patients (51% women, 55% treated with statins). Without statins, women had significantly lower LDL-c levels than men before the age of 45 years, similar levels between 45 and 49 years, and higher levels thereafter. With statins, similar LDL-c levels were shown up to the age of 55, and higher levels in women thereafter. Women had significantly higher HDL-c levels than men, regardless of age or statin treatment. Men had significantly higher TG levels up to the age of 55 and 60, depending on whether they did not take or took statins, respectively, and similar levels thereafter. When managing cardiovascular risk in patients with T2D, attention is needed for the menopausal status of women and for TG levels in younger men.

Trends in HbA1c thresholds for initiation of hypoglycemic agents: Impact of changed recommendations for older and frail patients.

AIMS: Less strict glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c ) thresholds have been recommended in older and/or frail type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients than in younger and less frail patients for initiating hypoglycemic agents since 2011. We aimed to assess trends in HbA1c thresholds at initiation of a first hypoglycemic agent(s) in T2D patients and the influence of age and frailty on these trends. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The groningen initiative to analyze type 2 diabetes treatment (GIANTT) database was used, which includes primary care T2D patients from the north of the Netherlands. Patients initiating a first non-insulin hypoglycemic agent(s) between 2008 and 2014 with an HbA1c measurement within 120 days before initiation were included. The influence of calendar year, age, or frailty and the interaction between calendar year and age or frailty were assessed using multilevel regression analyses adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: We included 4588 patients. The mean HbA1c threshold at treatment initiation was 7.4% up to 2010, decreasing to 7.1% in 2011 and increasing to 7.4% in 2014. This quadratic change over the years was significant (P < 0.001). Patients aged 60 to 79 initiated treatments at lower HbA1c and patients of different frailty at similar HbA1c levels. The interaction between year and age or frailty was not significant (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: HbA1c thresholds at initiation of a first hypoglycemic agent(s) changed significantly over time, showing a decrease after 2010 and an increase after 2012. The HbA1c threshold at initiation was not influenced by age or frailty, which is in contrast with recommendations for more personalized treatment.

Changes in blood pressure thresholds for initiating antihypertensive medication in patients with diabetes: a repeated cross-sectional study focusing on the impact of age and frailty.

OBJECTIVE: To assess trends in systolic blood pressure (SBP) thresholds at initiation of antihypertensive treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes and the impact of age and frailty on these trends. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: A repeated cross-sectional cohort study (2007-2014) using the Groningen Initiative to Analyse Type 2 diabetes Treatment database was conducted. The influence of calendar year, age or frailty and the interaction between year and age or frailty on SBP thresholds were assessed using multilevel regression analyses adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS: We included 4819 patients. The mean SBP at treatment initiation was 157 mm Hg in 2007, rising to 158 mm Hg in 2009 and decreasing to 151 mm Hg in 2014. This quadratic trend was significant (p<0.001). Older patients initiated treatment at higher SBP, but similar decreasing trends after 2009 were observed in all age groups. There were no significant differences in SBP thresholds between patients with different frailty groups. The association between year and SBP threshold was not influenced by age or frailty. CONCLUSION: After an initial rise, the observed SBP thresholds decreased over time and were not influenced by age or frailty. This is in contrast with changed guideline recommendations towards more personalised treatment during the study period and illustrates that changing prescribing practice may take considerable time. Patient-specific algorithms and tools focusing on when and when not to initiate treatment could be helpful to support personalised diabetes care.

Exenatide once weekly decreases urinary albumin excretion in patients with type 2 diabetes and elevated albuminuria: Pooled analysis of randomized active controlled clinical trials.

AIMS: To examine the albuminuria-lowering effect of exenatide once weekly (EQW) compared with active glucose-lowering comparators in patients with type 2 diabetes and elevated urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (uACR). METHODS: Six randomized double-blind and open-label phase III studies were pooled in a post hoc, exploratory analysis to evaluate the efficacy and safety of EQW versus non-glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist comparators in patients with type 2 diabetes and baseline uACR ≥30 mg/g. Treatment groups were EQW versus all comparators pooled. Efficacy outcomes were percent change from baseline to week 26/28 in uACR and absolute change in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), systolic blood pressure (SBP), body weight and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). RESULTS: Baseline characteristics were generally similar between the two treatment groups (EQW: N = 194, all comparators: N = 274). Relative to the comparator group, EQW changed albuminuria by -26.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] -39.5 to -10). Similar improvements were observed with EQW versus oral glucose-lowering drugs (-29.6% [95% CI -47.6 to -5.3) or insulin (-23.8% [95% CI -41.8 to -0.2]). The effect of EQW on uACR was independent of baseline renin-angiotensin system inhibitor usage. Adjusted mean decreases in HbA1c, SBP and body weight were more pronounced in the EQW versus the comparator group. Adjustment for changes in HbA1c, eGFR and SBP did not substantially affect the uACR-lowering effect of EQW. When also adjusting for changes in body weight, the uACR-lowering effect was reduced to (-13.0% [95% CI -29.9 to 7.8]). CONCLUSION: Exenatide once weekly reduced uACR in patients with type 2 diabetes and elevated albuminuria compared to commonly used glucose-lowering drugs.

The incretin pathway as a therapeutic target in diabetic kidney disease: a clinical focus on GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remains the main cause for chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) worldwide. Both CKD and ESKD lead to major increases in risk of cardiovascular disease and death in people with diabetes. Despite optimal management of lifestyle, glucose levels and hypertension, residual risk remains high, indicating that additional therapies to mitigate the burden of the disease are desired. In past decades, new treatment options for the management of diabetes have emerged, of which some have showed promising renoprotective potential. This review discusses current understanding of the renal effects of glucagon-like peptide receptor agonists and their potential use in prevention and treatment of DKD.

Pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed according to the WHO-2013 and WHO-1999 diagnostic criteria: a multicentre retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) adopted more stringent diagnostic criteria for GDM in 2013, to improve pregnancy outcomes. However, there is no global consensus on these new diagnostic criteria, because of limited evidence. The objective of the study was to evaluate maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcomes in two cohorts in the Netherlands applying different diagnostic criteria for GDM i.e. WHO-2013 and WHO-1999. METHODS: A multicenter retrospective study involving singleton GDM pregnancies in two regions, between 2011 and 2016. Women were diagnosed according to the WHO-2013 criteria in the Deventer region (WHO-2013-cohort) and according to the WHO-1999 criteria in the Groningen region (WHO-1999-cohort). After GDM diagnosis, all women were treated equally based on the national guideline. Maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcomes were compared between the two groups. RESULTS: In total 1386 women with GDM were included in the study. Women in the WHO-2013-cohort were older and had a higher pre-gestational body mass index. They were diagnosed earlier (24.9 [IQR 23.3-29.0] versus 27.7 [IQR 25.9-30.7] weeks, p = < 0.001) and less women were treated with additional insulin therapy (15.6% versus 43.4%, p = < 0.001). Rate of spontaneous delivery was higher in the WHO-2013-cohort (73.1% versus 67.4%, p = 0.032). The percentage large-for-gestational-age (LGA) neonates (birth weight > 90th percentile, corrected for sex, ethnicity, parity, and gestational age) was lower in the WHO-2013- cohort, but not statistical significant (16.5% versus 18.5%, p = 0.379). There were no differences between the cohorts regarding stillbirth, birth trauma, low Apgar score, and preeclampsia. CONCLUSIONS: Using the new WHO-2013 criteria resulted in an earlier GDM diagnosis, less women needed insulin treatment and more spontaneous deliveries occurred when compared to the cohort diagnosed with WHO-1999 criteria. No differences were found in adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Self-tracking of Physical Activity in People With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of an online self-tracking program on physical activity, glycated hemoglobin, and other health measures in patients with type 2 diabetes. Seventy-two patients with type 2 diabetes were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group. All participants received usual care. The intervention group received an activity tracker (Fitbit Zip) connected to an online lifestyle program. Physical activity was analyzed in average steps per day from week 0 until 12. Health outcome measurements occurred in both groups at baseline and after 13 weeks. Results indicated that the intervention group significantly increased physical activity with 1.5 ± 3 days per week of engagement in 30 minutes of moderate-vigorous physical activity versus no increase in the control group (P = .047). Intervention participants increased activity with 1255 ± 1500 steps per day compared to their baseline (P < .010). No significant differences were found in glycated hemoglobin A1c, with the intervention group decreasing -0.28% ± 1.03% and the control group showing -0.0% ± 0.69% (P = .206). Responders (56%, increasing minimally 1000 steps/d) had significantly decreased glycated hemoglobin compared with nonresponders (-0.69% ± 1.18% vs 0.22% ± 0.47%, respectively; P = .007). To improve effectiveness of eHealth programs, additional strategies are needed.

HbA1c response after insulin initiation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in real life practice: Identifying distinct subgroups.

AIMS: To identify subgroups of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) following distinct trajectories of HbA1c after insulin initiation and explore underlying differences in clinical characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cohort study was conducted in patients with T2DM initiating insulin in 2007-2013 with a follow-up of 2 to 4 years. Data were collected from the Groningen Initiative to Analyze Type 2 Diabetes Treatment (GIANTT) database. The primary outcome was subgroups with different trajectories of HbA1c patterns after insulin initiation, as identified by latent class growth modeling. Differences between subgroups were tested using one-way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis or chi-square tests, where appropriate. RESULTS: From 1459 patients, three subgroups with distinct HbA1c patterns were identified. Group 1 (8%) initially showed a moderate decrease followed by an increase in HbA1c 2 years later, despite receiving more comedication. Group 2 (84%) showed a stable decrease. Group 3 (8%) had a high initial level of HbA1c and a rapid decline within the first year, followed by a slow increase thereafter. Group 1 patients were on average 6-7 years younger than patients in groups 2 and 3 and were more likely to receive sulfonylureas than Group 3 patients. Group 3 patients had a shorter diabetes duration and were less well-controlled for HbA1c, systolic blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol at insulin initiation. CONCLUSIONS: Most patients showed a stable HbA1c response, but one out of six patients showed either a poor response, or a rapid initial response only after insulin initiation. Response patterns were associated with age, diabetes duration and risk-factor controls at the time of insulin initiation.

Continuous glucose monitoring during diabetic pregnancy (GlucoMOMS): A multicentre randomized controlled trial.

AIM: Diabetes is associated with a high risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Optimal glycaemic control is fundamental and is traditionally monitored with self-measured glucose profiles and periodic HbA1c measurements. We investigated the effectiveness of additional use of retrospective continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) in diabetic pregnancies. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We performed a nationwide multicentre, open label, randomized, controlled trial to study pregnant women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes who were undergoing insulin therapy at gestational age < 16 weeks, or women who were undergoing insulin treatment for gestational diabetes at gestational age < 30 weeks. Women were randomly allocated (1:1) to intermittent use of retrospective CGM or to standard treatment. Glycaemic control was assessed by CGM for 5-7 days every 6 weeks in the CGM group, while self-monitoring of blood glucose and HbA1c measurements were applied in both groups. Primary outcome was macrosomia, defined as birth weight above the 90th percentile. Secondary outcomes were glycaemic control and maternal and neonatal complications. RESULTS: Between July 2011 and September 2015, we randomized 300 pregnant women with type 1 (n = 109), type 2 (n = 82) or with gestational (n = 109) diabetes to either CGM (n = 147) or standard treatment (n = 153). The incidence of macrosomia was 31.0% in the CGM group and 28.4% in the standard treatment group (relative risk [RR], 1.06; 95% CI, 0.83-1.37). HbA1c levels were similar between treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: In diabetic pregnancy, use of intermittent retrospective CGM did not reduce the risk of macrosomia. CGM provides detailed information concerning glycaemic fluctuations but, as a treatment strategy, does not translate into improved pregnancy outcome.

New diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus and their impact on the number of diagnoses and pregnancy outcomes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Detection and management of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are crucial to reduce the risk of pregnancy-related complications for both mother and child. In 2013, the WHO adopted new diagnostic criteria for GDM to improve pregnancy outcomes. However, the evidence supporting these criteria is limited. Consequently, these new criteria have not yet been endorsed in the Netherlands. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of these criteria on the number of GDM diagnoses and pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: Data were available from 10,642 women who underwent a 75 g OGTT because of risk factors or signs suggestive of GDM. Women were treated if diagnosed with GDM according to the WHO 1999 criteria. Data on pregnancy outcomes were obtained from extensive chart reviews from 4,431 women and were compared between women with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) and women classified into the following groups: (1) GDM according to WHO 1999 criteria; (2) GDM according to WHO 2013 criteria; (3) GDM according to WHO 2013 fasting glucose threshold, but not WHO 1999 criteria; and (4) GDM according to WHO 1999 2 h plasma glucose threshold (2HG), but not WHO 2013 criteria. RESULTS: Applying the new WHO 2013 criteria would have increased the number of diagnoses by 45% (32% vs 22%) in this population of women at higher risk for GDM. In comparison with women with NGT, women classified as having GDM based only on the WHO 2013 threshold for fasting glucose, who were not treated for GDM, were more likely to have been obese (46.1% vs 28.1%, p < 0.001) and hypertensive (3.3% vs 1.2%, p < 0.001) before pregnancy, and to have had higher rates of gestational hypertension (7.8% vs 4.9%, p = 0.003), planned Caesarean section (10.3% vs 6.5%, p = 0.001) and induction of labour (34.8% vs 28.0%, p = 0.001). In addition, their neonates were more likely to have had an Apgar score <7 at 5 min (4.4% vs 2.6%, p = 0.015) and to have been admitted to the Neonatology Department (15.0% vs 11.1%, p = 0.004). The number of large for gestational age (LGA) neonates was not significantly different between the two groups. Women potentially missed owing to the higher 2HG threshold set by WHO 2013 had similar pregnancy outcomes to women with NGT. These women were all treated for GDM with diet and 20.5% received additional insulin. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Applying the WHO 2013 criteria will have a major impact on the number of GDM diagnoses. Using the fasting glucose threshold set by WHO 2013 identifies a group of women with an increased risk of adverse outcomes compared with women with NGT. We therefore support the use of a lower fasting glucose threshold in the Dutch national guideline for GDM diagnosis. However, adopting the WHO 2013 criteria with a higher 2HG threshold would exclude women in whom treatment for GDM seems to be effective.

Postpartum glucose follow-up and lifestyle management after gestational diabetes mellitus: general practitioner and patient perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Incidence of type 2 diabetes is high after gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). We aimed to evaluate the adherence to follow-up six-weeks postpartum visits in secondary care after GDM and glucose monitoring in primary care longer than 12-14 months after delivery and the years thereafter. In addition, we examined the women's lifestyle after delivery. METHODS: A cross-sectional follow-up survey among women with a history of GDM and their general practitioners (GP). Rates of attendance at the six-weeks postpartum visit and glucose testing were obtained from hospital records, over the period 2011-2012. Rates of annual follow-up postpartum glucose testing were assessed by a survey among their GP's. Lifestyle of the women on diet and exercise was assessed by questionnaire in 2015. RESULTS: In total 197 women were eligible for the study. Of these, 156 (79%) attended the six-weeks postpartum visit at the diabetes outpatient clinic and in 145 (93%) of these women glucose testing was performed. In total 77 (39%) women responded to the invitation to participate in this study and filled in the lifestyle questionnaire. About one third of the women met the recommendations for sufficient physical activity. A majority of them did not fulfil the Dutch guidelines on healthy diet - fruit intake 35.1%, vegetables intake 7.8%. Of the 74 invited GP's, 61 responded (82%), only 12 (20%) reported that they had performed a follow-up glucose testing within >12-14 months postpartum. Of these women, five were tested only in the first year of follow-up, five also in the second year, and two were tested for three consecutive years. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the high attendance rate of six-weeks postpartum visit and glucose testing, we observed low rates of longer-term follow-up regarding postpartum glucose testing. Moreover, we found a suboptimal adherence to healthy lifestyle for women with a history of GDM.