Bibliometric analysis of PTEN in neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration.

Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) was initially recognized as a significant regulator of cancer suppression and could impede cancer cell survival, proliferation, and energy metabolism. PTEN is highly expressed in neurons and performs crucial functions in neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and neuronal survival. Disruption of PTEN activity may also result in abnormal neuronal function and is associated with various neurological disorders, including stroke, seizures, and autism. Although several studies have shown that PTEN is involved in the development and degenerative processes of the nervous system, there is still a lack of in-depth studies that summarize and analyse patterns of cooperation between authors, institutions, countries, and journals, as well as research hotspots and trends in this important field. To identify and further visualize the cooperation and comprehend the development and trends of PTEN in the nervous system, especially in neural development and neurological diseases, we used a bibliometric analysis to identify relevant publications on this topic. We first found that the number of publications displayed a growing trend with time, but this was not stable. Universities, institutions, and authors from the United States are leading in this area of research. In addition, many cutting-edge research results have been discovered, such as key regulatory molecules and cellular mechanisms of PTEN in the nervous system, which may provide novel intervention targets and precise therapeutic strategies for related pathological injuries and diseases. Finally, the literature published within the last 5 years is discussed to identify future research trends regarding PTEN in the nervous system. Taken together, our findings, analysed using bibliometrics, may reflect research hotspots and trends, providing a reference for studying PTEN in the nervous system, especially in neural development and neurological diseases. These findings can assist new researchers in developing their research interests and gaining basic information. Moreover, our findings also may provide precise clinical guidelines and strategies for treating nervous system injuries and diseases caused by PTEN dysfunction.

Adipose mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles reduce glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in the retina.

Adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) have protective effects against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, but ADSCs are limited in use for treatment of optic nerve injury. Studies have shown that the extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by ADSCs (ADSC-EVs) not only have the function of ADSCs, but also have unique advantages including non-immunogenicity, low probability of abnormal growth, and easy access to target cells. In the present study, we showed that intravitreal injection of ADSC-EVs substantially reduced glutamate-induced damage to retinal morphology and electroretinography. In addition, R28 cell pretreatment with ADSC-EVs before injury inhibited glutamate-induced overload of intracellular calcium, downregulation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoleproprionic acid receptor (AMPAR) subunit GluA2, and phosphorylation of GluA2 and protein kinase C alpha in vitro. A protein kinase C alpha agonist, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate, inhibited the neuroprotective effects of ADSC-EVs on glutamate-induced R28 cells. These findings suggest that ADSC-EVs ameliorate glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in the retina through inhibiting protein kinase C alpha activation.

Cell cycle kinases (AUKA, CDK1, PLK1) are prognostic biomarkers and correlated with tumor-infiltrating leukocytes in HBV related HCC.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the high incidence cancers and third leading cause of cancer-related mortality. HBV is the top most risk factor accounting for 50-80% of the HCC cases. Kinases: Aurora kinase A (AURKA), cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK1) and Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), the key regulators of cell mitosis are overexpressed in varieties of cancers including HCC. However, the exact role of these genes in prognosis of HCC is not fully unveiled. In addition, there is no such an accurate prognostic biomarker for HBV-related HCC. To address this issue, we performed a multidimensional analysis of AURKA, CDK1 and PLK1 with a series of publicly available databases in multiple cancers and with experimental validation in HBV-related HCC tissues. Overexpression of AURKA, CDK1 and PLK1 was found in multiple cancers including HCC. Elevated expression of these genes could result from lowered DNA methylation and genomic alterations. Transcriptional overexpression was significantly correlated with poor prognosis of HCC patients. The expression levels were also significantly positively associated with tumor grades and stages. Furthermore, the expression levels of these genes had a strong correlation with infiltration of immune cells. Our analysis shows that AURKA, CDK1 and PLK1 are correlated with immune infiltration and are the prognostic biomarkers for HBV-induced HCC.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

DTX3L induced NLRP3 ubiquitination inhibit R28 cell pyroptosis in OGD/R injury.

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is one of the most common etiologies in many diseases. Retinal I/R leads to cytokine storm, resulting in tissue damage and cell death. Pyroptosis, a novel type of regulated cell death, occurs after cellular I/R injury. In this study, we established an oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD/R) cellular model (R28) to simulate retinal I/R injury. We conducted an LDH assay, and EthD-III and PI staining procedures to confirm pyroptosis. Mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis were used to identify the possible proteins interacting with NLRP3. Co-IP and various molecular biology techniques were used to investigate the possible modes regulating NLRP3 by DTX3L. EthD-III, PI staining and LDH assays demonstrated pyroptosis induced by OGD/R injury, mediated via NLRP3 pathway. Mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis screened out three candidate proteins interacting with NLRP3, and further Co-IP experiment indicated that DTX-3L may interact with NLRP3 to regulate its protein levels after injury. Co-IP experiments and various molecular biology methods demonstrated that DTX3L ubiquitinates NLRP3 resulting in pyroptosis after R28 OGD/R injury. Further, NLRP3 LRR and DTX3L RING domains interact with each other. Our study demonstrated that DTX3L may ubiquitinate NLRP3 to regulate OGD/R-induced pyroptosis globally in R28 cells.

Role of CAST-Drp1 Pathway in Retinal Neuron-Regulated Necrosis in Experimental Glaucoma.

OBJECTIVE: Numerous studies have indicated that excitatory amino acid toxicity, such as glutamate toxicity, is involved in glaucoma. In addition, excessive glutamate can lead to an intracellular calcium overload, resulting in regulated necrosis. Our previous studies have found that the calpastatin (CAST)-calpain pathway plays an important role in retinal neuron-regulated necrosis after glutamate injury. Although inhibition of the calpain pathway can decrease regulated necrosis, necrotic cells remain. It has been suggested that there are other molecules that participate in retinal neuron-regulated necrosis. CAST is an important regulator of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1)-mediated mitochondrial defects. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine whether the CAST-Drp1 pathway may be an underlying signaling axis in neuron-regulated necrosis. METHODS: Using cultured retinal neurons and in an in-vivo glaucoma model induced by glutamate overload, members of the CAST-Drp1 pathway were assessed by immunofluorescence, Western blotting, Phos-tagTM SDS-PAGE, and co-immunoprecipitation assays. Moreover, the black and white box test was performed on the rats. RESULTS: We found that more retinal neuron-regulated necrosis and Drp1 activation as well as lower CAST levels were present in the glutamate-induced glaucoma model. Rats with glutamate-induced glaucoma exhibited impaired visual function. We also observed retinal neuron-regulated necrosis and Drp1 activity decreased, and impaired vision recovered after CAST active peptide application, indicating that the CAST-Drp1 pathway plays a critical role in retinal neuron-regulated necrosis and visual function. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that the CAST-Drp1 pathway protects against retinal neuron-regulated necrosis, which may expand the therapeutic targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders involving dysfunction of glutamate metabolism, such as glaucoma.

Dynamic changes of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in rat's retina and its role on blood-retinal barrier injury after acute high intraocular pressure.

AIM: To clarify the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in blood-retinal barrier (BRB) injury after acute high intraocular pressure (IOP) in rats. METHODS: Forty-two Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomized into 7 groups [control (Cont), 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72h, n=6]. Except Cont group, other groups' retina tissue was obtained at corresponding time points after a model of acute high IOP have been established in rats. The expression of iNOS and tight junction protein zonula occludens (ZO)-1 was detected by Western blotting. Evans blue (EB; 3% ) was injected into the great saphenous vein to detect the leakage of EB by spectrophotometer. Nine rats were divided into Cont, 6h, 12h groups, the expression of iNOS was localized by immunofluorescence. In order to verify the role of iNOS in the damage to BRB, thirty-six rats were randomly divided into 4 groups [Cont, Cont+inhibitor (Inh), 6h and 6h+Inh, n=9]. After treatment with the iNOS-specific inhibitor 1400W, the expression of iNOS and ZO-1 and the leakage of BRB were detected again. RESULTS: The immunofluorescence results showed that the expression of iNOS was observed in the Cont group and 6h group, but not in the 12h group. iNOS was mainly expressed in the retinal nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell layer and inner nuclear layer and that it did not colocalize with the retinal ganglion cell marker NeuN but was co-expressed with the vascular endothelial cell marker CD31. Western blotting showed that in the early period (3h, 6h) after acute high IOP, the expression of iNOS was upregulated, then the down-regulation of iNOS were tested in the follow-up timing spots. ZO-1 expression showed a continuous down-regulation after 6h. The quantitative results for EB showed that the amount of EB leakage began to increase at 3h after acute high IOP. At 6h, the leakage of EB was lower, but at 12h, the leakage of EB was highest, after which it gradually recovered but remained higher than that in the Cont group. The expression of iNOS was down-regulated after 1400W treatment. ZO-1 expression was not significantly changed in the Cont+Inh group and the 6h group, and significantly down-regulated in the 6h+Inh group, and the leakage of EB was significantly increased after 1400W treatment. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the upregulation of iNOS expression in the early stage after acute high IOP may have a protective effect on BRB injury.

[Research progress on mechanisms of acupuncture in treating ischemic stroke].

Cerebral ischemic stroke (CIS) is a common and frequently occurring disease with high morbidity, disability and mortality. In the present paper, we reviewed the progress of studies on the underlying mechanisms of acupuncture in the treatment of CIS in recent years. It is found that acupuncture induced amelioration of symptoms of CIS is closely related to its functions in 1) inhibiting neuroinflammation, 2) reducing oxidative stress, 3) lowering excitatory amino acid toxicity, 4) resisting neuronal apoptosis, 5) regulating cellular autophagy, 6) promoting neuronal regeneration and repair, 7) facilitating vascular remodeling, 8) regulating cerebrovascular reserve, 9) adjusting brain metabolism, and 10) maintaining the integrity of blood-brain barrier. These mechanisms provide scientific basis for clinical application of acupuncture therapy in the treatment of CIS.

Autophagy in glaucoma pathogenesis: Therapeutic potential and future perspectives.

Glaucoma is a common blinding eye disease characterized by progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons, progressive loss of visual field, and optic nerve atrophy. Autophagy plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of glaucoma and is closely related to its pathogenesis. Targeting autophagy and blocking the apoptosis of RGCs provides emerging guidance for the treatment of glaucoma. Here, we provide a systematic review of the mechanisms and targets of interventions related to autophagy in glaucoma and discuss the outlook of emerging ideas, techniques, and multidisciplinary combinations to provide a new basis for further research and the prevention of glaucomatous visual impairment.

Altered diversity and composition of gut microbiota in patients with allergic rhinitis.

BACKGROUND: Recently, multiple studies have suggested an association between gut dysbiosis and allergic rhinitis (AR) development. However, the role of gut microbiota in AR development remains obscure. METHODS: The goal of this study was to compare the gut microbiota composition and short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs) differences associated with AR (N = 18) and HCs (healthy controls, N = 17). Gut microbiota 16SrRNA gene sequences were analyzed based on next-generation sequencing. SCFAs in stool samples were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). RESULTS: Compared with HCs, the gut microbiota composition of AR was significantly different in diversity and richness. At the phylum level, the abundance of Firmicutes in the AR group were significantly lower than those in the HCs group. At the genus level, the abundance of Blautia, Eubacterium_hallii_group, Romboutsia, Collinsella, Dorea, Subdoligranulum and Fusicatenibacter in the AR group were significantly lower than that in the HCs group. The concentrations of SCFAs were significantly lower in the AR group compared with the HCs group. Correlation analysis showed that the Eubacterium-hallii-group and Blautia correlated positively with SCFAs. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate compositional and functional alterations of the gut microbiome in AR.

Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells: A platform that can be engineered.

Mesenchymal stem cells play an important role in tissue damage and repair. This role is mainly due to a paracrine mechanism, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are an important part of the paracrine function. EVs play a vital role in many aspects of cell homeostasis, physiology, and pathology, and EVs can be used as clinical biomarkers, vaccines, or drug delivery vehicles. A large number of studies have shown that EVs derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-EVs) play an important role in the treatment of various diseases. However, the problems of low production, low retention rate, and poor targeting of MSC-EVs are obstacles to current clinical applications. The engineering transformation of MSC-EVs can make up for those shortcomings, thereby improving treatment efficiency. This review summarizes the latest research progress of MSC-EV direct and indirect engineering transformation from the aspects of improving MSC-EV retention rate, yield, targeting, and MSC-EV visualization research, and proposes some feasible MSC-EV engineering methods of transformation.

How does temperature play a role in the storage of extracellular vesicles?

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) contain specific proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids that can be passed to other cells as signal molecules to alter their function. However, there are many problems and challenges in the conversion and clinical application of EVs. Storage and protection of EVs is one of the issues that need further research. To adapt to potential clinical applications, this type of problem must be solved. This review summarizes the storage practices of EVs in recent years, and explains the impact of temperature on the quality and stability of EVs during storage based on current research, and explains the potential mechanisms involved in this effect as much as possible.

Silencing of GAS5 Alleviates Glaucoma in Rat Models by Reducing Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis.

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) play a key role in the pathogenesis and development of glaucoma. The present study aims to investigate the underlying mechanism of long noncoding RNA growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) in glaucoma development through regulating the apoptosis of RGCs. Rat models of chronic glaucoma were successfully established by translimbal laser photocoagulation. Retinal tissues were collected to determine the density of RGCs through Toluidine blue staining. The overexpression vector or short hairpin RNA for GAS5 or enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) was transfected into RGCs after in vitro pressurization culture to examine the function of GAS5 in RGC apoptosis. The involvement of EZH2 and ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) was further identified. Cell apoptosis after laser treatment and transfection was assessed by flow cytometry. We found abundant GAS5 expression and a reduction in RGC density in the retinal tissues of glaucoma rats. Silencing of GAS5 led to increased EZH2 expression and decreased ABCA1 expression in RGCs. In addition, upregulation of EZH2 promoted trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3, thereby suppressing ABCA1 expression and eventually leading to the inhibition of RGC apoptosis. These findings provide further understanding of the function of GAS5 in RGC apoptosis. We conclude that downregulation of GAS5 could help relieve glaucoma symptoms. GAS5 is therefore a promising target for developing novel therapeutic approaches for treating patients with glaucoma.

Mawangdui-Type Ancient Human Cadavers in China and Strategies for Their Long-Term Preservation.

Ancient human remains may exist as intact cadavers in various forms, including mummies as well as humid or soft corpses. These valuable human depositories have been increasingly investigated with modern molecular biological approaches, delivering breakthrough discoveries in the field of paleoanthropology. Many ancient remains are also preserved in museums for public education of the history of human civilization. The Mawangdui tomb No. 1 cadaver was unearthed in 1972 in Changsha, China, and is a well-preserved humid-type corpse of a deceased woman who lived in the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD). During the past few decades, a number of other similar cadavers have been discovered in China. The Mawangdui cadaver thus appears to represent an archetype of the humid corpses that are commonly unearthed from buried coffins, but show a great extent of anatomical and histological integrity at the time of excavation. Long-term protection of these cadavers is important with regard to scientific investigation and heritage conservation, while challenges exist to develop effective preservation protocols. In this perspective article, we describe the overall features of the humid cadavers found in China, and discuss the factors that potentially contributed to their preservation before excavation. We also introduce the efforts taken for, and experience learned from, postexcavation preservation of the Mawangdui cadaver during the past four decades. Finally, we propose that research into the mechanism governing the breakdown of macromolecules may provide potential solutions for extended protection of these valuable ancient human remains.

Autopsy and Forensic Study on a Rare Human Corpse Preserved Over Two Thousand Years: The Mawangdui Ancient Cadaver.

In 1972, an enormous tomb site was found in the eastern suburb of Changsha, the capital city of Hunan Province, which led to the discovery of Mawangdui tomb No. 1, and soon thereafter tombs Nos. 2 and 3. These tombs were dated back to the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD) in Chinese history. Along with numerous precious historic relics unearthed as grave goods, a well-preserved female cadaver was the most unprecedented, which was considered as one of the world's greatest archeological discoveries in the 20th century. The cadaver was initially examined through autopsy and X-ray imaging, with biopsies from multiple body parts analyzed histologically at the light and electron microscopic levels. In this review, we summarize the major imaging and autopsy findings from the cadaver indicative of remarkable preservation of some histological, cellular, and molecular constituents of the body. A forensic assessment of antemortem illnesses and potential cause of death of the subject are also noted.

Reappraisal of the Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver Thirty Years After Its Unearthing.

The Mawangdui tomb No.1 cadaver, a female corpse from the Western Han Dynasty, was unearthed in 1972. Forensic examination at the time of discovery indicated fairly remarkable presence of bodily constituents at the anatomical, histological, and molecular levels. The cadaver was preserved in a formalin-based fixative afterward, and maintained in the Hunan Museum. To better protect this rare human corpse, a reappraisal of the status of preservation was carried out using noninvasive approaches, including X-ray radiography, gross anatomical examination, and histological, microbiological, and molecular analyses of sampled tissues. The cadaver remained essentially intact from a gross anatomical perspective, with radiography of the skeletal system and arterial contrast filling appeared comparable with the original documentation. The light microscopic features of the skin, cartilage, and skeletal muscle remained detectable, as were the stratified ultrastructure of the collagen and muscle fibers. The levels of nitrogen and amino acidic elements appeared elevated in the cadaver and liver preservation fixatives, with a higher calcium and phosphate concentration in the former. These findings suggest that there existed a certain degree of macromolecule degradation and bone decalcification in the cadaver, likely irrelevant to biological decomposition. The reappraisal also led to the implementation of stronger scientific measures to better protect the cadaver through a renovated Museum-University coadministrative management agreement.

A Chemotherapy-Driven Increase in Mcl-1 Mediates the Effect of miR-375 on Cisplatin Resistance in Osteosarcoma Cells.

BACKGROUND: Osteosarcoma (OS) is one of the most difficult cancers to treat due to its resistance to chemotherapy. The essential role played by Mcl-1 in promoting chemoresistance has been observed in a variety of cancers, including OS, while the underlying mechanism remains unclear. METHODS: We investigated the expression of Mcl-1 in 42 paired OS specimens obtained before and after adjuvant chemotherapy, and its correlation with clinicopathological characteristics. Loss and gain of function studies were performed to analyze the effects of Mcl-1 modulations on the chemosensitivity, and the mechanism involved in the deregulation of Mcl-1 in OS cells. RESULTS: In OS specimens, the expression of Mcl-1 was significantly upregulated after chemotherapy, and high Mcl-1 expression was associated with poorer overall survival and an increased recurrence rate. Furthermore, we demonstrated that chemotherapy-driven increased Mcl-1 decreased chemosensitivity by promoting tumour proliferation and inhibiting DNA damage. Moreover, Mcl-1 was found to be a direct target of miR-375 in OS cells. The knockdown of Mcl-1 phenocopied miR-375 downregulation, and the overexpression of miR-375 rescued the effects of cisplatin-induced DNA damage mediated by Mcl-1. CONCLUSION: Our data indicated that chemotherapy-driven increase in the expression of Mcl-1 plays a critical role in chemoresistance, and the intervention of the miR-375/Mcl-1 axis may offer a novel strategy to enhance chemosensitivity in OS treatment.

Progress in studies of necroptosis and its relationship to disease processes.

This review briefly introduces the mechanism and detection methods of necroptosis in recent years. The most significant points of this review focus on the involvement of necroptotic proteins in disease progression. The following aspects are summarized: 1) RIPs, MLKL, and the upstream and downstream molecules that mediate necroptosis; 2) The development of detection methods for necroptosis; 3) The involvement of related necroptotic proteins in diverse diseases etiology; and 4) The application of necroptotic proteins in disease diagnosis.

Using drugs to target necroptosis: dual roles in disease therapy.

Necroptosis is programmed necrosis, a process which has been studied for over a decade. The most common accepted mechanism is through the RIP1-RIP3-MLKL axis to regulate necroptotic cell death. As a result of previous studies on necroptosis, positive regulation for promoting necroptosis such as HSP90 stabilization and hyperactivation of TAK1 on RIP1 is clear. Similarly, the negative regulation of necroptosis, such as through caspase 8, c-FLIP, CHIP, MK2, PELI1, ABIN-1, is also clear. Therefore, the promise of corresponding applications in treating diseases becomes hopeful. Studies have shown that necroptosis is involved in the development of many diseases, such as ischemic injury diseases in various organs, neurodegenerative diseases, infectious diseases, and cancer. Given these results, drugs that inhibit or trigger necroptosis can be discovered to treat diseases. In this review, we briefly introduce up to date concepts concerning the mechanism of necroptosis, the diseases that involve necroptosis, and the drugs that can be applied to treat such diseases.

Inhibition of HSP90α protects cultured neurons from oxygen-glucose deprivation induced necroptosis by decreasing RIP3 expression.

Heat shock protein 90α (HSP90α) maintains cell stabilization and regulates cell death, respectively. Recent studies have shown that HSP90α is involved in receptor interacting protein 3 (RIP3)-mediated necroptosis in HT29 cells. It is known that oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) can induce necroptosis, which is regulated by RIP3 in neurons. However, it is still unclear whether HSP90α participates in the process of OGD-induced necroptosis in cultured neurons via the regulation of RIP3. Our study found that necroptosis occurs in primary cultured cortical neurons and PC-12 cells following exposure to OGD insult. Additionally, the expression of RIP3/p-RIP3, MLKL/p-MLKL, and the RIP1/RIP3 complex (necrosome) significantly increased following OGD, as measured through immunofluorescence (IF) staining, Western blotting (WB), and immunoprecipitation (IP) assay. Additionally, data from computer simulations and IP assays showed that HSP90α interacts with RIP3. In addition, HSP90α was overexpressed following OGD in cultured neurons, as measured through WB and IF staining. Inhibition of HSP90α in cultured neurons, using the specific inhibitor, geldanamycin (GA), and siRNA/shRNA of HSP90α, protected cultured neurons from necrosis. Our study showed that the inhibitor of HSP90α, GA, rescued cultured neurons not only by decreasing the expression of total RIP3/MLKL, but also by decreasing the expression of p-RIP3/p-MLKL and the RIP1/RIP3 necrosome. In this study, we reveal that inhibition of HSP90α protects primary cultured cortical neurons and PC-12 cells from OGD-induced necroptosis through the modulation of RIP3 expression.

Inhibition of calpain on oxygen glucose deprivation-induced RGC-5 necroptosis.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of inhibition of calpain on retinal ganglion cell-5 (RGC-5) necroptosis following oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). RGC-5 cells were cultured in Dulbecco's-modified essential medium and necroptosis was induced by 8-h OGD. PI staining and flow cytometry were performed to detect RGC-5 necrosis. The calpain expression was detected by Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. The calpain activity was tested by activity detection kit. Flow cytometry was used to detect the effect of calpain on RGC-5 necroptosis following OGD with or without N-acetyl-leucyl-leucyl-norleucinal (ALLN) pre-treatment. Western blot was used to detect the protein level of truncated apoptosis inducing factor (tAIF) in RGC-5 cells following OGD. The results showed that there was an up-regulation of the calpain expression and activity following OGD. Upon adding ALLN, the calpain activity was inhibited and tAIF was reduced following OGD along with the decreased number of RGC-5 necroptosis. In conclusion, calpain was involved in OGD-induced RGC-5 necroptosis with the increased expression of its downstream molecule tAIF.