The importance of epistemology and translation for health and integration: A commentary on the special issue 'Integrative approaches to health'.

In this commentary on the J-AIM Special Issue 'Integrative Approaches to Health', we argue for plural narratives of health to balance and to reconnect human populations with their environments, to foster a renewed culture of health and wellbeing. Integration of our inner and outer ecosystems with pluralistic health systems requires 'movement' and 'change' and the special issue provides papers on integration and health from multiple disciplinary perspectives that study humans, non-human, animals, and plants in relation to clinical trials, individual and population studies and health systems. All these perspectives provide new insights to map integrative approaches in health, illness and wellbeing in times of the climate emergency. To ameliorate the biomedical and biopharmaceutical industries 'medicalisation of life' as the hegemonic and thus totalising human and more-than-human health systems and approach, the special issue acknowledges, situates and authorises broader visions and epistemologies of health and disease. These complementary epistemologies, their words, their movements (Ayu) and their health (Swastya) and balance (Soukya) are contained within indigenous health systems that include Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) amongst a vast array of local health cultures across the globe. In contrast with the narrower approach of medicalisation; integrative, inclusive, plural and sustainable approaches to health involve the respect for a population's self-reliance in health (the 4th Tier) and the dignity of the Sanskrit word for health, 'Swastya' which means 'being rooted within'. These perspective and epistemologies will help to create a vision for health and health systems that encourage integration through the dignity of the individual (Atmasnman/Anubhuti), respect for the other (Pratiksa/Adara), trust in community (Nyasa) and the creation of systems of equity (Samata) and social justice for all (Nyaya).

Wars and sweets: microbes, medicines and other moderns in and beyond the(ir) antibiotic era.

Once upon a time, many of us moderns dreamt that our future was bright, squeaky clean, germ-free. Now, we increasingly fear that bacterial resistance movements and hordes of viruses are cancelling our medicated performances, and threatening life as many of us have come to know it. In order for our modern antibiotic theatre of war to go on, we pray for salvation through our intensive surveillance of microbes, crusades for more rational antibiotic wars, increased recruitment of resistance fighters and development of antibiotic armaments through greater investment in our medical-industrial-war complex. But not all of us are in favour of the promise of perpetual antimicrobial wars, no matter how careful or rational their proponents aspire to be. An increasing vocal and diverse opposition has amassed in academic journals, newspapers and other fields of practice denouncing medicalisation and pharamceuticalisation of our daily lives, as well as our modern medicine as overly militaristic. In this paper, rather than simply rehearsing many of these well-made and meaning debates to convert you to yet another cause, I enrol them in redescriptions of our modern medical performances in the hope of awakening you from your aseptic dream. What follows is my invitation for you to re-enact our mythic antibiotic era in all its martial g(l)ory. I promise that it will bring you no physically harm, yet I can't promise it will leave your beliefs unscathed, as you follow its playful redescription of how our objective scientific descriptions, clinical prescriptions, economic strategies, political mandates and military orders, not to mention our warspeak, have always been deeply entangled with triumphs and devastations of The(ir) Great anti-Microbial Wars (aka our antibiotic era).

Antibiotic stories: a mixed-methods, multi-country analysis of household antibiotic use in Malawi, Uganda and Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: As concerns about the prevalence of infections that are resistant to available antibiotics increase, attention has turned toward the use of these medicines both within and outside of formal healthcare settings. Much of what is known about use beyond formal settings is informed by survey-based research. Few studies to date have used comparative, mixed-methods approaches to render visible patterns of use within and between settings as well as wider points of context shaping these patterns. DESIGN: This article analyses findings from mixed-methods anthropological studies of antibiotic use in a range of rural and urban settings in Zimbabwe, Malawi and Uganda between 2018 and 2020. All used a 'drug bag' survey tool to capture the frequency and types of antibiotics used among 1811 households. We then undertook observations and interviews in residential settings, with health providers and key stakeholders to better understand the stories behind the most-used antibiotics. RESULTS: The most self-reported 'frequently used' antibiotics across settings were amoxicillin, cotrimoxazole and metronidazole. The stories behind their use varied between settings, reflecting differences in the configuration of health systems and antibiotic supplies. At the same time, these stories reveal cross-cutting features and omissions of contemporary global health programming that shape the contours of antibiotic (over)use at national and local levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings challenge the predominant focus of stewardship frameworks on the practices of antibiotic end users. We suggest future interventions could consider systems-rather than individuals-as stewards of antibiotics, reducing the need to rely on these medicines to fix other issues of inequity, productivity and security.

The 'Drug Bag' method: lessons from anthropological studies of antibiotic use in Africa and South-East Asia.

Understanding the prevalence and types of antibiotics used in a given human and/or animal population is important for informing stewardship strategies. Methods used to capture such data often rely on verbal elicitation of reported use that tend to assume shared medical terminology. Studies have shown the category 'antibiotic' does not translate well linguistically or conceptually, which limits the accuracy of these reports. This article presents a 'Drug Bag' method to study antibiotic use (ABU) in households and on farms, which involves using physical samples of all the antibiotics available within a given study site. We present the conceptual underpinnings of the method, and our experiences of using this method to produce data about antibiotic recognition, use and accessibility in the context of anthropological research in Africa and South-East Asia. We illustrate the kinds of qualitative and quantitative data the method can produce, comparing and contrasting our experiences in different settings. The Drug Bag method produce accurate antibiotic use data as well as provide a talking point for participants to discuss antibiotic experiences. We propose it can help improve our understanding of antibiotic use in peoples' everyday lives across different contexts, and our reflections add to a growing conversation around methods to study ABU beyond prescriber settings, where data gaps are currently substantial.

Supporting surveillance capacity for antimicrobial resistance: Laboratory capacity strengthening for drug resistant infections in low and middle income countries.

Development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threatens our ability to treat common and life threatening infections. Identifying the emergence of AMR requires strengthening of surveillance for AMR, particularly in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) where the burden of infection is highest and health systems are least able to respond. This work aimed, through a combination of desk-based investigation, discussion with colleagues worldwide, and visits to three contrasting countries (Ethiopia, Malawi and Vietnam), to map and compare existing models and surveillance systems for AMR, to examine what worked and what did not work. Current capacity for AMR surveillance varies in LMICs, but and systems in development are focussed on laboratory surveillance. This approach limits understanding of AMR and the extent to which laboratory results can inform local, national and international public health policy. An integrated model, combining clinical, laboratory and demographic surveillance in sentinel sites is more informative and costs for clinical and demographic surveillance are proportionally much lower. The speed and extent to which AMR surveillance can be strengthened depends on the functioning of the health system, and the resources available. Where there is existing laboratory capacity, it may be possible to develop 5-20 sentinel sites with a long term view of establishing comprehensive surveillance; but where health systems are weaker and laboratory infrastructure less developed, available expertise and resources may limit this to 1-2 sentinel sites. Prioritising core functions, such as automated blood cultures, reduces investment at each site. Expertise to support AMR surveillance in LMICs may come from a variety of international, or national, institutions. It is important that these organisations collaborate to support the health systems on which AMR surveillance is built, as well as improving technical capacity specifically relating to AMR surveillance. Strong collaborations, and leadership, drive successful AMR surveillance systems across countries and contexts.

Preventing emergence of drug resistant tuberculosis in Myanmar's transitioning health system.

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a particular threat to the populations of resource-limited countries. Although inadequate treatment of TB has been identified as a major underlying cause of drug resistance, essential information to inform changes in health service delivery and policy is missing. We investigate factors that may be driving the emergence of MDR-TB in Myanmar, a country where investment and health system reforms are ongoing to address the unexplained, high occurrence of MDR-TB. We conducted a multi-centre, retrospective case-control study in 10 townships across Yangon. Cases were 202 GeneXpert-confirmed MDR-TB patients with a history of prior first-line treatment for TB. Controls were 404 previously untreated smear-microscopy confirmed TB patients who had no evidence of resistance to anti-TB drugs. Information on patient and health service factors was collected through face-to-face patient interviews and hospital record reviews. Multivariable logistic regression analysis indicated that the following TB patient groups are at higher risk of developing MDR-TB after initial TB treatment: those who have diabetes (aOR 2.10; 95% CI 1.17-3.76), those who missed taking drugs during the initial treatment more than once weekly (aOR 2.35; 95% CI 1.18-4.65) and those with a higher socioeconomic (aOR 1.99; 95% CI 1.09-3.63) or educational status (aOR 1.78; 95% CI1.01-3.13). Coinciding with a surge in funding to improve health in Myanmar, this study identifies practices of patients and healthcare organizations that can be addressed, and high-risk TB patient groups that can be prioritized for treatment support. Specifically, the study shows that TB patients who experience frequent, short interruptions in treatment and those with diabetes may require enhanced treatment support and monitoring by health services in order to prevent further generation of drug resistance.

Introducing rapid tests for malaria into the retail sector: what are the unintended consequences?

The observation that many people in Africa seek care for febrile illness in the retail sector has led to a number of public health initiatives to try to improve the quality of care provided in these settings. The potential to support the introduction of rapid diagnostic tests for malaria (mRDTs) into drug shops is coming under increased scrutiny. Those in favour argue that it enables the harmonisation of policy around testing and treatment for malaria and maintains a focus on market-based solutions to healthcare. Despite the enthusiasm among many global health actors for this policy option, there is a limited understanding of the consequences of the introduction of mRDTs in the retail sector. We undertook an interpretive, mixed methods study with drug shop vendors (DSVs), their clients and local health workers to explore the uses and interpretations of mRDTs as they became part of daily practice in drug shops during a trial in Mukono District, Uganda. This paper reports the unintended consequences of their introduction. It describes how the test engendered trust in the professional competence of DSVs; was misconstrued by clients and providers as enabling a more definitive diagnosis of disease in general rather than malaria alone; that blood testing made drug shops more attractive places to seek care than they had previously been; was described as shifting treatment-seeking behaviour away from formal health centres and into drug shops; and influenced an increase in sales of medications, particularly antibiotics. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01194557; Results.

Risk factors that may be driving the emergence of drug resistance in tuberculosis patients treated in Yangon, Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: The majority of new tuberculosis cases emerging every year occur in low and middle-income countries where public health systems are often characterised by weak infrastructure and inadequate resources. This study investigates healthcare seeking behaviour, knowledge and treatment of tuberculosis patients in Myanmar-which is facing an acute drug-resistant tuberculosis epidemic-and identifies factors that may increase the risk of emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis. METHODS: We randomly selected adult smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients diagnosed between September 2014 and March 2015 at ten public township health centres in Yangon, the largest city in Myanmar. Data on patients' healthcare seeking behaviour, treatment at the township health centres, co-morbidities and knowledge was collected through patient interviews and extraction from hospital records. A retrospective descriptive cross-sectional analysis was conducted. RESULTS: Of 404 TB patients selected to participate in the study, 11 had died since diagnosis, resulting in 393 patients being included in the final analysis. Results indicate that a high proportion of patients (16%; 95% CI = 13-20) did not have a treatment supporter assigned to improve adherence to medication, with men being more likely to have no treatment supporter assigned. Use of private healthcare providers was very common; 59% (54-64) and 30.3% (25.9-35.0) of patients reported first seeking care at private clinics and pharmacies respectively. We found that 8% (6-11) of tuberculosis patients had confirmed diabetes. Most patients had some knowledge about tuberculosis transmission and the consequences of missing treatment. However, 5% (3-8) stated that they miss taking tuberculosis medicines at least weekly, and patients with no knowledge of consequences of missing treatment were more likely to miss doses. CONCLUSIONS: This study analysed healthcare seeking behaviour and treatment related practices of tuberculosis patients being managed under operational conditions in a fragile health system. Findings indicate that ensuring that treatment adherence support is arranged for all patients, monitoring of response to treatment among the high proportion of tuberculosis patients with diabetes and engagement with private healthcare providers could be strategies addressed to reduce the risk of emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis.

Efficacy of malaria prevention during pregnancy in an area of low and unstable transmission: an individually-randomised placebo-controlled trial using intermittent preventive treatment and insecticide-treated nets in the Kabale Highlands, southwestern Uganda.

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria during pregnancy (IPTp) and insecticide-treated nets (ITN) are recommended malaria interventions during pregnancy; however, there is limited information on their efficacy in areas of low malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. An individually-randomised placebo-controlled trial involving 5775 women of all parities examined the effect of IPTp, ITNs alone, or ITNs used in combination with IPTp on maternal anaemia and low birth weight (LBW) in a highland area of southwestern Uganda. The overall prevalence of malaria infection, maternal anaemia and LBW was 15.0%, 14.7% and 6.5%, respectively. Maternal and fetal outcomes were generally remarkably similar across all intervention groups (P>0.05 for all outcomes examined). A marginal difference in maternal haemoglobin was observed in the dual intervention group (12.57g/dl) compared with the IPTp and ITN alone groups (12.40g/dl and 12.44g/dl, respectively; P=0.04), but this was too slight to be of clinical importance. In conclusion, none of the preventive strategies was found to be superior to the others, and no substantial additional benefit to providing both IPTp and ITNs during routine antenatal services was observed. With ITNs offering a number of advantages over IPTp, yet showing comparable efficacy, we discuss why ITNs could be an appropriate preventive strategy for malaria control during pregnancy in areas of low and unstable transmission.