Terahertz radiation detection with a cantilever-based photoacoustic sensor.

We report the photoacoustic (PA) response in the terahertz (THz) range by employing a detection process actuated with a silicon cantilever pressure sensor and a carbon-based radiation absorber. The detection relies on the mechanical response of the cantilever, when the volume of the carrier gas inside the PA cell expands with the heat produced by the radiation absorber. The detector interferometrically monitors the movement of the cantilever sensor to generate the PA signal. We selected the absorber material with the highest THz responsivity for detailed studies at 1.4 THz (214 µm wavelength). The observed responsivities of two different radiation absorbers are nearly the same at 1.4 THz and agree within 10% with responsivity values at 0.633 µm wavelength. The results demonstrate the potential of covering with a single PA detector a broad spectral range with approximately constant responsivity, large dynamic range, and high damage threshold.

Optical power detector with broad spectral coverage, high detectivity, and large dynamic range.

Optical power measurements are needed in practically all technologies based on light. Here, we report a general-purpose optical power detector based on the photoacoustic effect. Optical power incident on the detector's black absorber produces an acoustic signal, which is further converted into an electrical signal using a silicon-cantilever pressure transducer. We demonstrate an exceptionally large spectral coverage from ultraviolet to far infrared, with the possibility for further extension to the terahertz region. The linear dynamic range of the detector reaches 80 dB, ranging from a noise-equivalent power of 6 n W/H z to 600 mW (independent of signal averaging time).

High Performance Predictable Quantum Efficient Detector Based on Induced-Junction Photodiodes Passivated with SiO2/SiNx.

We performed a systematic study involving simulation and experimental techniques to develop induced-junction silicon photodetectors passivated with thermally grown SiO2 and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposited (PECVD) SiNx thin films that show a record high quantum efficiency. We investigated PECVD SiNx passivation and optimized the film deposition conditions to minimize the recombination losses at the silicon-dielectric interface as well as optical losses. Depositions with varied process parameters were carried out on test samples, followed by measurements of minority carrier lifetime, fixed charge density, and optical absorbance and reflectance. Subsequently, the surface recombination velocity, which is the limiting factor for internal quantum deficiency (IQD), was obtained for different film depositions via 2D simulations where the measured effective lifetime, fixed charge density, and substrate parameters were used as input. The quantum deficiency of induced-junction photodiodes that would be fabricated with a surface passivation of given characteristics was then estimated using improved 3D simulation models. A batch of induced-junction photodiodes was fabricated based on the passivation optimizations performed on test samples and predictions of simulations. Photodiodes passivated with PECVD SiNx film as well as with a stack of thermally grown SiO2 and PECVD SiNx films were fabricated. The photodiodes were assembled as light-trap detector with 7-reflections and their efficiency was tested with respect to a reference Predictable Quantum Efficient Detector (PQED) of known external quantum deficiency. The preliminary measurement results show that PQEDs based on our improved photodiodes passivated with stack of SiO2/SiNx have negligible quantum deficiencies with IQDs down to 1 ppm within 30 ppm measurement uncertainty.

LED-Based Photoacoustic NO2 Sensor with a Sub-ppb Detection Limit.

A high-sensitivity light-emitting diode (LED)-based photoacoustic NO2 sensor is demonstrated. Sensitive photoacoustic gas sensors based on incoherent light sources are typically limited by background noise and drifts due to a strong signal generated by light absorbed at the photoacoustic cell walls. Here, we reach a sub-ppb detection limit and excellent stability using cantilever-enhanced photoacoustic detection and perform a two-channel relative measurement. A white-light LED is used as a light source, and the spectrum is divided into two wavelength channels with a dichroic filter. The photoacoustic signals generated by the two wavelength channels are measured simultaneously and used to solve the NO2 concentration. The background signal is highly correlated between the two channels, and its variations are suppressed in the relative measurement. A noise level below 1 ppb is reached with an averaging time of 70 s. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first time a sub-ppb detection limit is demonstrated with an LED-based photoacoustic NO2 sensor. As LEDs are available at a wide selection of emission wavelengths, the results show great potential for development of cost-effective and sensitive detectors for a variety of other trace gasses as well.

Photoacoustic characteristics of carbon-based infrared absorbers.

We present an experimental comparison of photoacoustic responsivities of common highly absorbing carbon-based materials. The comparison was carried out with parameters relevant for photoacoustic power detectors and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy: we covered a broad wavelength range from the visible red to far infrared (633 nm to 25 µm) and the regime of low acoustic frequencies (< 1 kHz). The investigated materials include a candle soot-based coating, a black paint coating and two different carbon nanotube coatings. Of these, the low-cost soot absorber produced clearly the highest photoacoustic response over the entire measurement range.

Cryostat setup for measuring spectral and electrical properties of light-emitting diodes at junction temperatures from 81 K to 297 K.

We introduce a cryostat setup for measuring fundamental optical and electrical properties of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). With the setup, the cryostat pressure and the LED properties of the forward voltage, junction temperature, and electroluminescence spectrum are monitored with temperature steps less than 1.5 K, over the junction temperature range of 81-297 K. We applied the setup to commercial yellow AlGaInP and blue InGaN LEDs. At cryogenic temperatures, the fine structure of the electroluminescence spectra became resolved. For the yellow LED, we observed the phonon replica at 2.094 eV that was located 87 meV below the peak energy at the junction temperature of 81 K. For the blue LED, we observed the cascade phonon replicas at 2.599 eV, 2.510 eV, and 2.422 eV with the energy interval of 89 meV. For both LED types, the forward voltage increased sharply toward the lower temperatures due to the increased resistivity of materials in the LED components. We found significant differences between the temperature dependent behaviors of the forward voltages, spectral peak energies, and bandgap energies of LEDs obtained from the Varshni formula. We also noted a sharp pressure peak at 180-185 K arising from the solid-vapor phase transition of water when the base level of the cryostat pressure was approximately 0.4 mPa.

Nonlinearity characterization of array spectroradiometers for the solar UV measurements.

Array spectroradiometers are attractive alternatives to scanning spectroradiometers in solar ultraviolet measurements. However, the measurement of solar spectral irradiance imposes stringent requirements for the linearity of the instruments. In this article, two array spectroradiometers were characterized for nonlinearity. Significant nonlinearities, in excess of 10%, as a function of analog-to-digital converter counts were discovered. Additional nonlinearities as a function of integration time were observed at very long integration times. No clear residual nonlinearity as a function of spectral irradiance was witnessed despite the characterization spanning four orders of magnitude of spectral irradiance. The characterizations were carried out with three measurement setups that are briefly compared.

High-resolution setup for measuring wavelength sensitivity of photoyellowing of translucent materials.

Polystyrene and many other materials turn yellow when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. All photodegradation mechanisms including photoyellowing are functions of the exposure wavelength, which can be described with an action spectrum. In this work, a new high-resolution transmittance measurement setup based on lasers has been developed for measuring color changes, such as the photoyellowing of translucent materials aged with a spectrograph. The measurement setup includes 14 power-stabilized laser lines between 325 nm and 933 nm wavelengths, of which one at a time is directed on to the aged sample. The power transmitted through the sample is measured with a silicon detector utilizing an integrating sphere. The sample is mounted on a high-resolution XY translation stage. Measurement at various locations aged with different wavelengths of exposure radiation gives the transmittance data required for acquiring the action spectrum. The combination of a UV spectrograph and the new high-resolution transmittance measurement setup enables a novel method for studying the UV-induced ageing of translucent materials with a spectral resolution of 3-8 nm, limited by the adjustable spectral bandwidth range of the spectrograph. These achievements form a significant improvement over earlier methods.

Organohalogen concentrations and feeding status in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) of the Baltic Sea during the spawning run.

Changes in the concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Baltic salmon muscle were studied during the spawning migration from the southern Baltic Sea to rivers flowing into the northern Gulf of Bothnia and during the spawning period. The aim was to obtain information to facilitate the arrangement of salmon fisheries such that the human dioxin intake is taken into account. The EC maximum allowable total toxic equivalent concentration (WHO-TEQPCDD/F+PCB) was exceeded in the muscle of the majority of the migrating salmon, except in the Baltic Proper. The fresh-weight-based concentrations of all toxicant groups in salmon tended to be the lowest in the Baltic Proper and the Northern Quark, and all toxicant concentrations, except PCDDs and PCDFs, were significantly higher in the spawning salmon than in the salmon caught during the spawning run. The fat content of the salmon muscle decreased by 60% during the spawning run, and the lipid-based total toxicant concentrations were consequently 4.2-6.2 times higher during the spawning period than during the spawning migration. However, the toxicants were concentrated just before spawning, and thus there is no essential difference related to whether the salmon are caught in the sea or the recreational river fishery.

Optical temperature measurements of silicon microbridge emitters.

Microbridges are miniature suspended structures fabricated in silicon. Passing a current through the microbridge can heat it up to the point of incandescence. A glowing microbridge can be used as a wideband light source. This study presents a method for optical measurement of the temperature of a microbridge. Spectroscopic measurements of microbridges are optically challenging, because the multilayer structures cause interference effects. To determine the temperature from the emitted spectrum, the emissivity was modeled with thin-film Fresnel equations. Temperatures of 500-1100 degrees C were obtained from the measured spectra at different levels of applied power. The range is limited by the sensitivity of the detectors at lower power levels and by the stability of the bridge at higher levels. Results of the optical measurements were compared with contact temperature measurements made with a microthermocouple in the same temperature range. The results of the two methods agree within 100 K.

Multifunctional integrating sphere setup for luminous flux measurements of light emitting diodes.

A multifunctional setup based on the absolute integrating sphere method for measuring luminous flux of light emitting diodes (LEDs) is presented. The total luminous flux in 2pi and 4pi geometries and partial luminous flux with variable cone angle can be measured with the same custom-made integrating sphere. The number and area of ports and baffles of the sphere was minimized. The sphere has three ports: a main port, a detector port, and an auxiliary port, located in the same hemisphere. The other hemisphere is free of ports. The main port is used for the calibration of the sphere as well as for the LED under test. Only one absolute calibration of the integrating sphere photometer is needed for measuring LEDs in all three geometries. The spatial nonuniformity correction is needed only for LEDs with low directivity or having significant minor beams. The expanded uncertainty (k=2) for the measurement setup varies between 1.2% and 4.6% depending on the measurement geometry, color, and the angular spread of the LED light beam. A complete calibration procedure of the constructed integrating sphere photometer is presented as well as comparison measurements with a goniophotometer.

Spectral irradiance model for tungsten halogen lamps in 340-850 nm wavelength range.

We have developed a physical model for the spectral irradiance of 1 kW tungsten halogen incandescent lamps for the wavelength range 340-850 nm. The model consists of the Planck's radiation law, published values for the emissivity of tungsten, and a residual spectral correction function taking into account unknown factors of the lamp. The correction function was determined by measuring the spectra of a 1000 W, quartz-halogen, tungsten coiled filament (FEL) lamp at different temperatures. The new model was tested with lamps of types FEL and 1000 W, 120 V quartz halogen (DXW). Comparisons with measurements of two national standards laboratories indicate that the model can account for the spectral irradiance values of lamps with an agreement better than 1% throughout the spectral region studied. We further demonstrate that the spectral irradiance of a lamp can be predicted with an expanded uncertainty of 2.6% if the color temperature and illuminance values for the lamp are known with expanded uncertainties of 20 K and 2%, respectively. In addition, it is suggested that the spectral irradiance may be derived from resistance measurements of the filament with lamp on and off.

Estimation of the optical receiving plane positions of solar spectroradiometers with spherical diffusers on the basis of spatial responsivity data.

A straightforward method for estimating the position of the optical receiving plane of a spherical, dome-shaped diffuser from its spatial responsivity data is presented. The method is tested with two diffusers, types J1002 and J1015 from CMS Schreder, commonly used in solar UV spectroradiometers. The shift of the receiving plane from its nominal position determines a potential measurement error that occurs when measurements and calibrations are carried out with sources at different distances from the diffuser. Such information is particularly valuable for voluminous solar UV monitoring spectroradiometers that cannot easily be transported to laboratory calibrations. The results suggest that systematic measurement errors are at least of the order of 1%, if the position of the receiving plane is not properly taken into account, thus indicating a need to study the effect more carefully. This method can also be used to minimize measurement errors when designing diffusers.

Comparison measurements of 0:45 radiance factor and goniometrically determined diffuse reflectance.

A comparison between the absolute gonioreflectometric scales at the Helsinki University of Technology (TKK) and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) has been accomplished. Six different reflection standards were measured for their 0:45 spectral radiance factor between 250 and 1650 nm in 10 nm intervals. Also, the 0:d reflectance factor between 400 and 1600 nm in 100 nm intervals was determined from goniometric reflectance measurements over polar angles with subsequent integration within the hemisphere above the sample. Goniometric comparisons covering such an extensive wavelength range and also several different sample materials are rarely implemented. For all but one sample, the difference between the results obtained at the TKK and the PTB was, with the exception of a couple of measurement points, within the expanded uncertainty (k = 2) of the comparison at least up to a wavelength of 1400 nm. All differences between the measurement results can be understood, except for one translucent sample in the visible wavelength range. The effect of sample translucency was found to be significant in the NIR wavelength region. Also, a general tendency of an increase of the TKK values relative to the PTB values in the UV region was observed. Possible causes for this phenomenon are discussed.

Determining the irradiance signal from an asymmetric source with directional detectors: application to calibrations of radiometers with diffusers.

The energy transfer integral between radiating rectangular and detecting circular parallel plates having nonideal angular characteristics is solved for modeling the distance dependence of the irradiance signal. The equation derived for the irradiance signal, which is called the modified inverse-square law, depends on the position, shape, size, and angular characteristics of the light source and the detector. We apply the new model equation to the calibration of a spectroradiometer to determine accurately the distance offsets, which fix the positions of the effective receiving apertures of diffusers used in the entrance optics of spectroradiometers. Earlier measurement results, e.g., for solar UV irradiance, may include uncorrected effects and can be corrected reliably as diffuser offsets and other correction factors are determined with the modified inverse-square law. Simplifications of the modified inverse-square law for analyzing the distance offsets and the correction factors are studied. Simplified equations for the diffuser offset analysis may be used without losing the accuracy when the cosine response of the diffuser is reasonably good. However, for diffusers whose angular responsivities deviate much from the cosinusoidal angular responsivity, large approximation errors in the diffuser offset values may appear if the angular effects are not properly taken into account.

Oxidative stress during Baltic salmon feeding migration may be associated with yolk-sac fry mortality.

The wild populations of salmon in the Baltic Sea suffer from yolk-sac fry mortality (M74). M74 mainly occurs in populations spawning in rivers flowing to the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. On the basis of studies with fry, M74 may be caused by oxidative stresses. Because the eggs of M74-offspring-producing females have lower thiamine and astaxanthin levels and more oxidized fatty acids than eggs of females producing healthy offspring, oxidative stresses that adult salmon experience during their feeding migration may be decisive for the development of M74. In this study we have measured several oxidative stress parameters and have evaluated bothtemporal and regional differences in these parameters in salmon individuals during their feeding migration. At present, salmon feeding in the Gulf of Finland and in the Bothnian Sea are affected by oxidative stress as compared to populations feeding in the Baltic Proper. Moreover, the feeding population of salmon in the central Baltic Proper suffered much more from oxidative stress in 1999 than in 2006-2007. In 1999 the incidence of M74 was higher than that expected in 2007/2008. Oxidative stresses experienced by feeding salmon may thus be behind the development of M74.

Goniofluorometer for characterization of fluorescent materials.

A goniofluorometer has been built that is capable of measuring in various viewing angles ranging from 10 degrees to 90 degrees . The incident angle can be varied from 0 degrees to 8 degrees . The goniofluorometer can measure bispectral luminescent radiance factors in the wavelength range of 250-800 nm. To our knowledge, there are no other reported results of similar devices capable of spectral measurements in various measurement geometries.

Comparison of absolute spectral irradiance responsivity measurement techniques using wavelength-tunable lasers.

Independent methods for measuring the absolute spectral irradiance responsivity of detectors have been compared between the calibration facilities at two national metrology institutes, the Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), Finland, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The emphasis is on the comparison of two different techniques for generating a uniform irradiance at a reference plane using wavelength-tunable lasers. At TKK's Laser Scanning Facility (LSF) the irradiance is generated by raster scanning a single collimated laser beam, while at the NIST facility for Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity Calibrations with Uniform Sources (SIRCUS), lasers are introduced into integrating spheres to generate a uniform irradiance at a reference plane. The laser-based irradiance responsivity results are compared to a traditional lamp-monochromator-based irradiance responsivity calibration obtained at the NIST Spectral Comparator Facility (SCF). A narrowband filter radiometer with a 24 nm bandwidth and an effective band-center wavelength of 801 nm was used as the artifact. The results of the comparison between the different facilities, reported for the first time in the near-infrared wavelength range, demonstrate agreement at the uncertainty level of less than 0.1%. This result has significant implications in radiation thermometry and in photometry as well as in radiometry.

Characterization of thin films based on reflectance and transmittance measurements at oblique angles of incidence.

The optical parameters of a SiO2 thin-film coating determined from the spectral reflectance and transmittance measurements at various incidence angles, including the normal incidence and the Brewster's angle, are compared in this paper. The high-accuracy measurements were carried out through visible-near-infrared spectral regions by using our purpose-built instruments. The optical parameters obtained from the reflectance and the transmittance data are consistent over the angles of incidence and agree within 0.2%. The effect of important systematic factors in the oblique-incidence spectrophotometric measurements is also discussed.

Determination of the diffuser reference plane for accurate illuminance responsivity calibrations.

It is difficult to predict where the effective measurement plane is situated with dome-shaped diffusers often used in commercial photometers and radiometers. Insufficient knowledge of this plane could lead to large systematic errors in calibration of the illuminance responsivity of photometers. We propose a method that can be used to determine this reference plane accurately, based on the inverse-square law between the measured signal and the distance from the source. The method is demonstrated with three commercial photometers with dome-shaped diffusers of different geometries. By taking into account the measured shifts of the reference planes (5.0 +/- 0.5 mm, 7.8 +/- 0.3 mm, and 8.5 +/- 0.7 mm), we reduced the systematic measurement errors up to 2% to statistical uncertainty components at the level of 0.2%.