Associations between gendered racism, racial identity, and nicotine use among Asian American men.

OBJECTIVES: The present study utilized an intersectional framework to examine if two forms of gendered racism, psychological emasculation and messages about Asian American men being undesirable partners, were associated with Asian American men's nicotine use. We also examined the potential mediating roles of two racial identity statuses, racial conformity and racial immersion. METHODS: A sample of 356 Asian American men living in the United States of America (USA) completed a cross-sectional survey via Qualtrics containing measures assessing the aforementioned constructs of interest. The primary analysis examined separate parallel mediation models, situating psychological emasculation and undesirable partner as separate independent variables, racial conformity and racial immersion as parallel mediators, nicotine use as the outcome, and age and employment as covariates. RESULTS: In separate parallel mediation models, the links between psychological emasculation and undesirable partner on one hand, and nicotine use on the other, were completely mediated only by racial conformity, and not significantly mediated by racial immersion. Specifically, greater endorsement of gendered racism was associated with greater conformity with (and internalization of) these gendered racist beliefs, which in turn were associated with greater nicotine use. CONCLUSION: Researchers and practitioners may consider racial conformity as an interventional target to ameliorate Asian American men's nicotine use. Future studies should continue to examine other culturally relevant and/or potentially protective constructs (e.g., on the basis of gender, race, and its intersection) that may mitigate Asian American men's nicotine use.

Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on the Health of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander People in the United States, 2021.

OBJECTIVES: Minimal research has assessed COVID-19's unique impact on the Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NH/PI) population-an Indigenous-colonized racial group with social and health disparities that increase their risk for COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. To address this gap, we explored the scope of COVID-19 outcomes, vaccination status, and health in diverse NH/PI communities. METHODS: NH/PI staff at partner organizations collected survey data from April through November 2021 from 319 community-dwelling NH/PI adults in 5 states with large NH/PI populations: Arkansas, California, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, Pearson χ2 tests, independent and paired t tests, and linear and logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: During the COVID-19 pandemic, 30% of survey participants had contracted COVID-19, 16% had a close family member who died of the disease, and 64% reported COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Thirty percent reported fair/poor health, 21% currently smoked cigarettes, and 58% reported obesity. Survey participants reported heightened COVID-19-related psychosocial distress (mean score = 4.9 on 10-point scale), which was more likely when health outcomes (general health, sleep, obesity) were poor or a family member had died of COVID-19. Logistic regression indicated that age, experiencing COVID-19 distress, and past-year use of influenza vaccines were associated with higher odds of COVID-19 vaccine uptake (1.06, 1.18, and 7.58 times, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Our empirical findings highlight the acute and understudied negative impact of COVID-19 on NH/PI communities in the United States and suggest new avenues for improving NH/PI community health, vaccination, and recovery from COVID-19.

Minority stressors and their associations with severe psychological distress among gender-diverse people.

People whose gender does not align with assigned sex often experience negative mental health outcomes related to cisnormative societal expectations and oppression, including familial rejection, threat of harm, and identity invalidation (e.g., misgendering). This study merged two cross-sectional data sets of trans and gender-diverse people (N = 363; Mage = 22.02) investigating how various types of distal minority stress experiences impact psychological distress. We tested the associations between three minority stressors (i.e., family rejection, threat of harm, and identity invalidation) and psychological distress using unadjusted and adjusted regression models, including gender-stratified models. In the overall unadjusted model, all three stressors were significantly, positively associated with psychological distress, with identity invalidation having the highest standardized ß value. In the adjusted overall model, only identity invalidation was significantly associated with distress. Results varied in gender-stratified models. Additionally, participants who experienced any of the three stressors had predicted mean distress scores at or above the cutoff for severe psychological distress, while those who did not fell below that cutoff. Results highlight the differential impact of minority stress experiences on gender-diverse young adults and provide directions for clinical competency, interventions, and future research toward understanding mental health disparities for trans people. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Body positivity for Asian Americans: Development and evaluation of the pride in Asian American Appearance Scale.

While a growing body of literature has examined factors that contribute to Asian Americans' negative body image, little research has investigated Asian Americans' body image from a strengths-based perspective. This study thus presents the Pride in Asian American Appearance Scale (PAAAS), which was designed to measure the extent to which Asian Americans feel positively about their own racialized physical appearances as well as those of fellow Asian Americans. Items were developed through an extensive literature review, cognitive interviews, and expert feedback. Exploratory (N = 398) and confirmatory (N = 398) factor analyses suggested a bifactor model, consisting of 24 items comprising a general factor and four group factors: (a) Pride in Asian Features, (b) Preference for Asian American Appearance, (c) Asian Americans as Desirable, and (d) Action Promoting Asians' Attractiveness. Internal consistency estimates as well as factor determinacies were high and demonstrated that the specified items adequately represented their intended factors. The PAAAS was significantly correlated in theoretically expected directions with collective self-esteem, internalized racist appearance bias, and psychological distress. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Alcohol Use Disorder Risk and Protective Factors and Associated Harms Among Pacific Islander Young Adults.

Pacific Islander (PI) young adults (age 18 to 30 years) experience elevated rates of hazardous drinking, AUDs, and alcohol-related harms. Yet, we know little about the risk and protective factors that drive, or can prevent, PI young adult hazardous drinking behaviors and AUDs due to a lack of targeted alcohol disparities research. This large qualitative study presents data from 8 focus groups with 69 PIs (51 young adults, 18 informal providers) to explore the major risk factors, protective factors, and negative consequences associated with PI young adult hazardous drinking and AUDs. Findings revealed (1) major risk factors including the presence of significant life stressors that trigger alcohol self-medication, peer/social pressure to drink, permissive drinking norms, and frequent access to alcohol and (2) negative consequences involving physical fights, health and relationship problems, harm to personal reputation, and community harms including driving-under-the-influence and sexual violence. Protective factors against hazardous drinking and AUDs included the cultural norm of protecting the family's reputation by avoiding AUDs, church/religious faith, family responsibilities, and culturally relevant prosocial activities (e.g., sports, dance, choir). Obtaining this in-depth data revealed that an effective culturally grounded AUD prevention intervention for PI young adults-which does not currently exist-should (1) target these identified major risk factors for AUDs, while (2) integrating culturally responsive strategies that incorporate their reported protective factors.

Examining the association between sexism, self-objectification, empowerment, and alcohol-related problems: Pathways through drinking to cope.

While research suggests that sexism is associated with college women's hazardous alcohol use, few studies have investigated the psychological factors that underlie the association between sexism and alcohol-related problems. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine the direct and indirect effect of gender-relevant sociocultural factors, including sexism, self-objectification, and empowerment, on college women's alcohol-related problems through drinking to cope. 450 women attending a large public university completed a cross-sectional survey that assessed these gender-relevant sociocultural factors and alcohol-related outcomes. Controlling for Greek membership, perceived drinking norms, and alcohol use, sexism and empowerment were both directly associated with alcohol-related problems, while sexism, self-objectification, and empowerment were indirectly associated with alcohol-related problems through the mechanism of drinking to cope. The results of this study highlight the importance of taking into account gender-relevant risk factors for women's alcohol-related problems, as well as the role of psychological processes such as drinking to cope. Pathways for intervention on both individual and systemic levels are discussed.

Intimate Partner Violence Among Low-Income Fathers: Testing a Stress-Coping Model.

This research used a stress-coping conceptual framework to examine intimate partner violence (IPV) among men who are fathers. The current study examined how perceived stress explained associations between stressors (e.g., employment status, psychological and physical female-to-male partner violence [FMPV], substance use, criminal justice system involvement) and male-perpetrated physical and psychological IPV. Participants were 1,971 low-income, ethnically diverse fathers involved in a statewide fatherhood program. Findings indicated that, across African American, White, and Hispanic/Latino men, male-reported FMPV and criminal justice involvement were associated with psychological and/or physical IPV via perceived stress. Employment status and alcohol use were associated with psychological IPV via perceived stress among African American men only. Implications for community-based fatherhood programs are discussed.

A longitudinal investigation of racial discrimination, distress intolerance, and psychological well-being in African American college students.

There is robust evidence that racism negatively influences health outcomes for African American college students. However, few studies have longitudinally examined the underlying mechanisms related to the repercussions of racism. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal association between racial discrimination and psychological well-being (PWB), as well as the mediating role of distress intolerance. METHOD: As part of a larger parent study, a sample of 105 African American first-year undergraduate students (mean age = 18.1) completed three surveys across 1 year. The RMediation program was used to test the indirect effect of racism on PWB through distress intolerance. RESULTS: There was a significant positive indirect effect of racism on PWB through distress intolerance, such that increased racism was associated with increased distress intolerance, which was thus associated with decreased PWB. CONCLUSIONS: Intervention efforts may be aimed at preventing racism for African American college students and providing clinical services that reduce distress intolerance.

A longitudinal investigation of racial discrimination, drinking to cope, and alcohol-related problems among underage Asian American college students.

Few studies have investigated alcohol-related problems among Asian American college students, perhaps because of the model minority myth, or the false stereotype that Asian Americans are academically and economically successful and thus do not experience significant physical or mental health problems. However, drinking patterns among Asian Americans are complex and there is evidence that alcohol use may be increasing among Asian American college students. One potential risk factor for alcohol-related problems among Asian American college students is racial discrimination. Although past research has revealed a link between experiences of racial discrimination and alcohol use, few studies have examined the psychological processes underlying this association. Furthermore, only a few studies have examined the association between discrimination and alcohol-related problems using longitudinal designs. The present study longitudinally examined the direct and indirect effect of discrimination on alcohol-related problems through the frequency in which they engaged in drinking to cope within a sample of 311 underage Asian American college students. Controlling for alcohol use and baseline alcohol-related problems, Wave 2 drinking-to-cope motives were directly associated with Wave 3 (1 year later) alcohol-related problems. Wave 1 discrimination was indirectly associated with Wave 3 alcohol-related problems through drinking to cope. These findings have important implications for the prevention of alcohol-related problems among an understudied group, Asian American college students. They highlight the necessity of considering how sociocultural factors such as racism contribute to alcohol-related problems as well as examining how psychological processes such as drinking to cope put certain students at increased risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Distinct classes of alcohol use and related problems among Asian American young adults.

There is little understanding and minimal research identifying distinct subgroups of drinkers among ethnic minority populations, particularly Asian Americans, although growing evidence suggests that high-risk groups of Asian American drinkers exist. Sociocultural factors, including ethnic background and nativity status can be theoretically important factors that might be associated with these distinct groups. Additionally, well-established correlates of alcohol use, such as drinking to cope, Greek membership, and alcohol expectancies might also be associated with these distinct groups. The purpose of the study was to: (a) identify distinct classes of drinkers among 657 Asian American college students, and (b) examine the factors associated with the latent classes of drinkers. Four classes were identified, and the 2 high-risk groups included: (a) High Risk Binge Drinking class (10%): engaging in binge drinking (4 drinks in a 2 h sitting for women and 5 drinks for men) around 14.92 times in the past 3 months, reporting getting intoxicated 10.26 times over the past 3 months and 11 alcohol-related problems; (b) Monthly Binge Drinking class (27%): engaging in binge drinking 3.5 times in the past 3 months, reporting getting intoxicated 2.49 times over the past 3 months, and 7.8 alcohol-related problems. United States-born individuals were more likely to be in the High Risk Binge Drinking class; higher drinking to cope motives and being involved in a sorority or fraternity differentiated the higher drinking classes from the low-risk classes. Korean and South Asian Americans were less likely to be in the Monthly Binge Drinking class. This study illustrates that high risk drinking subgroups exist among Asian American young adults attending college, and identifies relevant correlates to drinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Pathways linking intergenerational cultural dissonance and alcohol use among Asian American youth: The role of family conflict, parental involvement, and peer behavior.

A difference in degree of acculturation between immigrant parents and children, known as intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD), is a risk factor for adolescent alcohol use. We used path analysis with 292 Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents from immigrant families in the United States to measure potential mediators (family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, association with deviant peers) of the ICD-alcohol use relationship. The hypothesized model was an adequate data fit among both groups. Among Cambodian adolescents, higher ICD levels significantly predicted increased family conflict, which in turn was associated with reduced parental involvement/monitoring, increased association with deviant peers, and a subsequently higher risk of alcohol use (p < .05 for all coefficients). We also found significant indirect effects of ICD on alcohol use among Vietnamese adolescents through family conflict and parental involvement/monitoring (p < .05 for all coefficients) but not through peer behavior. For both groups, there was no direct effect of ICD on alcohol use outside these pathways. Identification of significant mediators provides potential targets for preventing alcohol use among these populations. In addition, differences in path coefficients between Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents underscore the importance of conducting analyses stratified by Asian ethnic group.

Masculinity and Depression: A Longitudinal Investigation of Multidimensional Masculine Norms Among College Men.

The transition from high school to college represents a pivotal developmental period that may result in significant maladjustment for first-year college men. Men may feel pressured to "prove" their masculinity by engaging in traditional masculine behaviors that could be negative for their overall well-being. Although adherence to multidimensional masculine norms has been associated with poorer mental health, no studies have examined the role of masculine norms on prospective depressive symptoms among first-year college men. Examining college men's adherence to multidimensional masculine norms longitudinally can offer a promising theoretical framework to explain within-group variability in depression symptomatology. The sample included 322 men from the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Masculine norms were assessed during the beginning of their first year of college. Depressive symptomatology was assessed 6 months after the first wave of data collection. Masculine norms were positively and negatively related to prospective depression scores, such that men who endorsed the masculine norms of Self-Reliance, Playboy (i.e., desire to have multiple sexual partners), and Violence, had heightened risk, whereas men who endorsed Winning and Power Over Women were less likely to report depressive symptomatology. Distinct masculine norms appear to confer risk for depression while other norms appear to be protective. This study was the first to examine the role of multidimensional masculine norms on prospective depressive symptomatology among college men. The results suggest that practitioners working with men should consider assessing their clients' adherence to distinct masculine norms and explore how these might be impacting their current mental health.

Gendered Racism Scales for Asian American Men: Scale development and psychometric properties.

The Gendered Racism Scales for Asian American Men (GRSAM) was developed to assess the frequency and stress level of gendered racism perceived by Asian American men. The development of the new measure was grounded in the Intersectional Fusion Paradigm. This paradigm explains individuals' experiences of discrimination based on unique combinations of multiple interlocking identities that individuals experience simultaneously. In mixed samples of college students and community adults, GRSAM's factor structure as well as evidence of convergent validity, criterion-related validity, discriminant validity, incremental validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability was examined. Exploratory factor analyses revealed three dimensions of GRSAM: Psychological Emasculation, Perceived Undesirable Partner, and Perceived Lack of Leadership. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that a bifactor model was a better fit to the data than a correlated three-factor model and a higher-order model. Results of correlation and regression analyses further provided evidence for different aspects of construct validity and internal consistency. Both the Frequency and Stress versions of GRSAM positively predicted psychological distress and somatic symptoms above and beyond the effects of general racism experienced by Asian Americans and masculine gender role stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Model minority stereotype and the diagnosis of alcohol use disorders: Implications for practitioners working with Asian Americans.

This study investigated the priming effects of the model minority stereotype on 122 clinicians in training regarding their diagnostic accuracy on Asian Americans compared to Whites. It was hypothesized that clinicians in training would be less likely to diagnose Asian Americans with alcohol use disorder and would perceive them to have fewer clinical symptoms than Whites due to the model minority stereotype. Consistent with the hypotheses, clinicians in training were less likely to assign alcohol use disorder to Asian Americans compared to Whites, as well as to the unprimed condition versus the condition primed with the stereotype. Implications regarding cultural competence and future research are discussed.

Differences in alcohol use patterns between adolescent Asian American ethnic groups: Representative estimates from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health 2002-2013.

OBJECTIVE: Studies have suggested that alcohol use prevalence is increasing among Asian American adolescents and there may be significant differences between specific adolescent Asian American ethnicities. METHOD: Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2002-2013) were used to estimate prevalence of alcohol use (lifetime, past-month, past-year) and problem (binge drinking, alcohol use disorder [AUD], and early initiation of use) outcomes among adolescent Asian American ethnicities. RESULTS: Filipino Americans had the highest prevalence of lifetime (29.3%) and past-month (10.3%) use; Korean Americans had the highest prevalence of past-year use (22.7%). Asian Indian Americans had the lowest prevalence of all three use indicators: 14.6%, 11.9%, and 4.9% for lifetime, past-year, and past-month, respectively. Korean Americans had the highest prevalence of binge drinking (5.4%), Filipino Americans had the highest prevalence of AUD (3.5%), and Vietnamese Americans had the highest prevalence of early initiation of use (13.5%). Asian Indian Americans had the lowest prevalence for all three alcohol problem indicators: 2.6%, 1.0%, and 4.9% for binge drinking, AUD, and early initiation of use, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence estimates of alcohol outcomes among Korean, Japanese, and Filipino American adolescents were high and similar to other racial groups that are often considered higher risk racial groups. Estimates among large subgroups with low alcohol use prevalence, Chinese and Asian Indian Americans, may mask high rates among other Asian ethnicities when alcohol use estimates are presented among Asians overall. When feasible, researchers should present alcohol use estimates disaggregated by specific Asian American ethnicities and investigate differences in risk factors across groups.

Asian American and White College Students' Heavy Episodic Drinking Behaviors and Alcohol-Related Problems.

BACKGROUND: Heavy episodic drinking (HED) and alcohol-related problems appears to be a growing problem among young adult Asian Americans. One promising factor that helps explain within-group differences among Asian American includes nativity. Nativity refers to whether an individual was born in (i.e., second generation or higher) or outside (i.e., first generation) of the United States. Despite this theoretically promising variable, there has been a paucity of literature examining comparing drinking patterns between first and second generation Asians Americans and White college men. OBJECTIVES: The current study examined the relationship between HED and alcohol-related problems among first- and second-generation Asian American, and White college male students. Interaction between race and the variables in HED and alcohol-related problems models were also investigated. METHOD: A total of 630 men were recruited of which 489 were Asian American men (407 second generation and 82 first generation) and 148 White students attending a public university in southern California (USA) were recruited. RESULTS: Results revealed no differences in HED rates between second-generation Asian American and White male college students; however, White students reported higher rates of HED compared to first-generation Asian Americans. No differences in alcohol-related problems were found between all three groups. There were no significant interactions between racial groups, drinking to cope, Greek/fraternity status, and descriptive norms on the alcohol outcomes. Conclusion/importance: Second-generation Asian American young adult men reported similar HED and rates of alcohol-related problems as White men. The present findings suggest that alcohol-related problems among Asian American men are a larger public health concern than previously believed.

A systematic review of the salient role of feminine norms on substance use among women.

AIMS: Substance use among women is a growing and significant public health concern. Given women's vulnerability to substance-use related consequences, it is essential to understand the factors that explain within-group variability in substance use and related problems. Feminine norms, or the beliefs and expectations of what it means to be a woman, appear to be a promising and theoretically-important social determinant of substance use. The present systematic review identifies the current trends and limitations of research examining feminine norms and substance use outcomes among women. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted for peer-reviewed, full-text journal articles written in English published between 2000-2015. Articles that fit the following inclusion criteria: a) use of a feminine norms/ideology or feminine role conflict measure, b) sampling women with a mean age of 15 or higher, and c) quantitative, were included. RESULTS: Twenty-three eligible studies were identified. Many women engaged in heavy episodic drinking or were classified as high-risk drinkers. Seventy-four percent of the studies detected a significant relationship between feminine norms and substance use, of which 52% of the studies reviewed reported the harmful role of feminine norms as conferring risk for alcohol use. In addition to substance use risk, women who more strongly endorsed traditional feminine norms were more likely to report concomitant chronic diseases and eating disorder behavior. CONCLUSION: The systematic review highlights that femininity appears to play a distinct and significant role in explaining within-group differences and patterns of substance use among women.

Measurement invariance of the people of Color Racial Identity Attitudes Scale with Asian Americans.

Racial identity has been linked to a number of important psychological outcomes, including perceptions of racism, self-esteem, and psychological well-being in Asian American populations. Although the People of Color Racial Identity Attitudes Scale (PRIAS; Helms, 1995) is the most widely used measure in Asian American racial identity research, numerous competing measurement models of the PRIAS have been identified in independent Asian American samples. Therefore, this study tested these competing PRIAS measurement models and also examined PRIAS measurement invariance across generational status, gender, and ethnicity using a combined sample of 1,946 Asian American college students and community adults. Study findings demonstrated the superiority of a 12-item 4-factor PRIAS measurement model that was consistent with Helms's original racial identity theory, suggesting that the PRIAS operates in an equivalent manner across generational status, gender, and ethnicity. Study limitations and future directions for research are discussed.

Emotion regulation mediates the association between ADHD and depressive symptoms in a community sample of youth.

The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationship between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, emotion regulation (ER) ability, and depressive symptoms within a diverse community sample of 277 youth, ages 9-12 (56 % male). Participants were drawn from a larger study examining adolescent risk behaviors, and completed annual assessments over 3 years. Youth ADHD symptoms were assessed at Time 1 (T1) using the parent-reported Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale, ER was assessed with the parent-reported Emotion Regulation Checklist at Time 2 (T2), and youth depressive symptoms were assessed using the self-reported Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scales at Time 3 (T3). Analyses examined T2 ER as a mediator between T1 ADHD symptoms (including the unique contributions of inattentive [IA] versus hyperactive/impulsive [HI] symptoms) and T3 depressive symptoms. Structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated the path model specified provided an excellent fit to the data. Tests of indirect effects suggested that T2 ER appears to be a significant mechanism that underlies the relationship between T1 ADHD and T3 depression, even when accounting for T1 oppositional defiant and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, while both T1 IA and HI symptoms had significant indirect effects on T3 depression through the mechanism T2 ER, HI proved a more robust predictor of T2 ER than IA. Results of this prospective study support cross-sectional findings pointing to ER as a potential mechanism linking ADHD and depressive symptoms in youth. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Alcohol makes you macho and helps you make friends: the role of masculine norms and peer pressure in adolescent boys' and girls' alcohol use.

Peer pressure and general conformity to adult norms have been found to be strongly associated with alcohol use among adolescents; however there is limited knowledge about the sociocultural factors that might influence this relationship. Theory and research suggest that masculine norms might directly and indirectly contribute to alcohol use through peer pressure and general conformity to adult norms. Whereas being male is typically identified as a risk factor for alcohol use, masculine norms provide greater specificity than sex alone in explaining why some boys drink more than others. There is growing evidence that girls who endorse masculine norms may be at heightened risk of engaging in risky behaviors including alcohol use. Data were provided by adolescents living in a rural area in the Northeastern United States and were collected in 2006. This study demonstrated that masculine norms were associated with peer pressure and general conformity and alcohol use for both adolescent girls (n = 124) and boys (n = 138), though the relationship between masculine norms and alcohol use was stronger for boys. The study's limitations are noted and theoretical and practical implications are discussed.