Universal hepatitis A vaccination in the United States: a call for action.

Previous hepatitis A recommendations for the United States targeted vaccination of at-risk individuals and children living in states and communities with consistently elevated rates of hepatitis A. Recommendations now call for routine hepatitis A vaccination of all children in the United States beginning at age 1 year (12-23 months). Currently, vaccination coverage rates for hepatitis A remain below rates of other routine childhood vaccines. Achieving a national immunization rate greater than 90% for the recommended 2 doses of hepatitis A vaccine would lessen disease impact throughout society. Routine childhood immunization against hepatitis A can be a highly effective strategy to reduce infection in children and community transmission of the virus, and the elimination of indigenous transmission of hepatitis A is an attainable goal.

Projected cost-effectiveness of new vaccines for adolescents in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Economic assessments that guide policy making on immunizations are becoming increasingly important in light of new and anticipated vaccines for adolescents. However, important considerations that limit the utility of these assessments, such as the diversity of approaches used, are often overlooked and should be better understood. OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to examine economic studies of adolescent vaccines and compare cost-effectiveness outcomes among studies on a particular vaccine, across adolescent vaccines, and between new adolescent vaccines versus vaccines that are recommended for young children. METHODS: A systematic review of economic studies on immunizations for adolescents was conducted. Studies were identified by searching the Medline, Embase, and EconLit databases. Each study was reviewed for appropriateness of model design, baseline setup, sensitivity analyses, and input variables (ie, epidemiologic, clinical, cost, and quality-of-life impact). For comparison, the cost-effectiveness outcomes reported in key studies on vaccines for younger children were selected. RESULTS: Vaccines for healthy adolescents were consistently found to be more costly than the health care or societal cost savings they produced and, in general, were less cost-effective than vaccines for younger children. Among the new vaccines, pertussis and human papillomavirus vaccines were more cost-effective than meningococcal vaccines. Including herd-immunity benefits in studies significantly improved the cost-effectiveness estimates for new vaccines. Differences in measurements or assumptions limited further comparisons. CONCLUSION: Although using the new adolescent vaccines is unlikely to be cost-saving, vaccination programs will result in sizable health benefits.

Prevalence of hepatitis A virus risk factors in a very low endemic country, Switzerland.

We aimed to estimate the population-based lifetime exposure to guidelines-based hepatitis A virus (HAV) risk factors in a country model with very low HAV endemicity. A cross-sectional survey among randomly selected residents of Switzerland aged 20-60 years was performed assessing the HAV exposure risk according to the U.S. and the Swiss guidelines. The adjusted prevalence of lifetime exposure to HAV-associated risk exceeded 80% with travel being the most important risk factor. In addition, not only the HAV vaccination coverage was low but also lack of awareness was widespread. As projections indicate a further increase in travel volume resulting imported HAV infections with subsequent transmission among the resident population are a public health concern and a universal HAV vaccination strategy for HAV should be evaluated.

Cost-effectiveness of childhood hepatitis A vaccination in Argentina: a second dose is warranted.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the cost-effectiveness of childhood vaccination against hepatitis A in the five geographic regions of Argentina, and to determine whether adding a second dose to the current one-dose schedule would provide health gains justifying its added cost. METHODS: A Markov model was used to consider four immunization options for the 2005 birth cohort: (1) no vaccination; (2) vaccination at 12 months of age, (3) vaccinations at 12 and 72 months of age; or (4) vaccinations at 12 and 18 months of age. Hepatitis A costs and consequences were predicted over 50 years. The cost-effectiveness of first and second vaccine doses was assessed through a range of vaccine prices and assumptions regarding the duration of vaccine protection. Costs and health gains (measured in quality-adjusted life years) were adjusted to present values using a 3% annual discount rate. RESULTS: The one-dose vaccination policy is predicted to reduce each birth cohort member's 50-year probability of overt hepatitis A from 7.2% to 4.1%. A second dose would reduce the probability to between 2.0% and 2.2%. Vaccination at 12 months of age, at 12 and 72 months, or at 12 and 18 months would reduce cases among personal contacts by 82%, 87%, and 92%, respectively. The first vaccine dose would meet accepted standards of cost-effectiveness in each region, and reduce costs in the Northeast, Central, and South regions. Adding a second dose at age 18 months would be cost-effective in each region, and further reduce costs in the Cuyo region. If the duration of protection with one dose is less than anticipated, the second dose would be more cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: Greater health gains are derived from the first than second hepatitis A vaccine dose. However, this analysis supports the cost-effectiveness of providing both first and second doses to Argentina's children.

Cost-effectiveness of childhood hepatitis A vaccination in Argentina: a second dose is warranted

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the cost-effectiveness of childhood vaccination against hepatitis A in the five geographic regions of Argentina, and to determine whether adding a second dose to the current one-dose schedule would provide health gains justifying its added cost. METHODS: A Markov model was used to consider four immunization options for the 2005 birth cohort: (1) no vaccination; (2) vaccination at 12 months of age, (3) vaccinations at 12 and 72 months of age; or (4) vaccinations at 12 and 18 months of age. Hepatitis A costs and consequences were predicted over 50 years. The cost-effectiveness of first and second vaccine doses was assessed through a range of vaccine prices and assumptions regarding the duration of vaccine protection. Costs and health gains (measured in quality-adjusted life years) were adjusted to present values using a 3 percent annual discount rate. RESULTS: The one-dose vaccination policy is predicted to reduce each birth cohort member's 50-year probability of overt hepatitis A from 7.2 percent to 4.1 percent. A second dose would reduce the probability to between 2.0 percent and 2.2 percent. Vaccination at 12 months of age, at 12 and 72 months, or at 12 and 18 months would reduce cases among personal contacts by 82 percent, 87 percent, and 92 percent, respectively. The first vaccine dose would meet accepted standards of cost-effectiveness in each region, and reduce costs in the Northeast, Central, and South regions. Adding a second dose at age 18 months would be cost-effective in each region, and further reduce costs in the Cuyo region. If the duration of protection with one dose is less than anticipated, the second dose would be more cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: Greater health gains are derived from the first than second hepatitis A vaccine dose. However, this analysis supports the cost-effectiveness of providing both first and second doses to Argentina's children.

OBJETIVOS: Investigar la efectividad en función del costo de la vacunación infantil contra la hepatitis A en las cinco regiones de Argentina y determinar si la adición de una segunda dosis al esquema actual de una dosis aumentaría los beneficios a la salud y si estos justificarían el costo adicional. MÉTODOS: Se empleó el modelo de Markov para valorar cuatro opciones de vacunación para la cohorte nacida en el año 2005: 1) no vacunar; 2) vacunar a los 12 meses de edad; 3) vacunar a los 12 y a los 72 meses; y 4) vacunar a los 12 y a los 18 meses de edad. Se estimaron el costo y las consecuencias de la enfermedad a 50 años. La efectividad en función del costo de la primera y la segunda dosis de la vacuna se calculó a partir de varios precios de la vacuna e hipótesis acerca de la duración de la protección. Los costos y los beneficios para la salud (medidos en años de vida ajustados por la calidad de vida) se ajustaron por los valores actuales utilizando una tasa de descuento anual de 3 por ciento. RESULTADOS: Se estima que la política de vacunación con una dosis reduciría la probabilidad de cada miembro de la cohorte de padecer hepatitis A sintomática en 50 años de 7,2 por ciento a 4,1 por ciento. Una segunda dosis reduciría esa probabilidad a 2,0 por ciento-2,2 por ciento. La vacunación a los 12 meses de edad, a los 12 y a los 72 meses, o a los 12 y a los 18 meses reduciría el número de casos entre los contactos personales en 82 por ciento, 87 por ciento y 92 por ciento, respectivamente. La primera dosis de la vacuna satisfaría los estándares aceptados de efectividad en función del costo en todas las regiones del país y reduciría los costos en las regiones Nordeste, Central y Sur. La aplicación de una segunda dosis a los 18 meses resultaría efectiva en función del costo en todas las regiones y reduciría adicionalmente los costos en la región de Cuyo. Si la duración de la protección con una dosis fuera menor de la esperada, la segunda dosis...

Hepatitis B risks and immunization coverage among American travelers.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B is endemic in much of Asia, Africa, and parts of South America, regions that are increasingly popular destinations for American travelers. The frequency of hepatitis B risks during travel has been examined for Europeans but not Americans. Further, limited data are available to describe the domestic hepatitis B risk factors of American travelers, the proportion vaccinated, and whether immunization activities target travelers at highest risk. We conducted a survey of international travelers to address these issues. METHODS: A survey was mailed to 884 American international travelers, of whom 618 (70%) responded. The survey covered demographic and travel characteristics, sources of pre-travel health advice, immunization status, and items needed to assess hepatitis B vaccination candidacy. Travel-specific items concerned the most recent trip to a hepatitis B endemic region. Hepatitis B risk during the most recent trip was classified as high, potential, or none based on potential exposure to blood or bodily fluids. RESULTS: Only 31% of respondents visited any health practitioner to obtain pre-travel health advice; 13% visited a travel medicine specialist. Totally 45% of respondents reported (3)1 domestic or travel-related hepatitis B risk, and 8% were at high risk during travel. Risk factors were more common among younger travelers and those with longer travel durations. Travel medicine specialists were more likely than nonspecialists to provide hepatitis B vaccine (40% vs 21%, p= 0.01). Travelers with risk factors were no more likely to be vaccinated in specialist or nonspecialist settings. Upon departure, only 19% of all travelers and 30% of travelers with risk factors had received three or more hepatitis B vaccine doses. CONCLUSIONS: Most US travelers to hepatitis B endemic regions do not secure pre-travel health advice, and most have not received three doses of hepatitis B vaccine. A substantial share are candidates for hepatitis B vaccination based on their domestic activities, and/or face hepatitis B risks during travel.

Hepatitis A immunization strategies: universal versus targeted approaches.

The alternative to nationwide childhood hepatitis A vaccination is to continue targeting high-risk adults. To consider how many of today's children will become vaccination candidates, the proportion of adults reporting a lifetime history of hepatitis A risk factors was examined. One thousand thirty-four US adults responded to a confidential postal survey, 49% of whom had met current Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) criteria for immunization and 72% had met an expanded set of criteria. Because adult vaccination is more costly per capita, targeted vaccination may provide modest financial savings with none of the benefits associated with reduced child-to-adult transmission.

Immunization needs of chronic liver disease patients seen in primary care versus specialist settings.

Chronic liver disease patients may benefit from certain vaccines, but their immunization coverage levels have not been widely studied. We examined the serologic and vaccination status of 693 chronic liver disease patients from 37 primary care and specialist centers. Patients in primary care had more often received influenza (47 versus 32%; P < .001) and pneumococcal (39 versus 19%; P < .001) vaccines. Among patients without documented prior exposure, those seeing specialists had more often completed hepatitis A (28 versus 5%; P < .001) and hepatitis B (29 versus 14%; P < .001) vaccination. Coverage was higher in centers with a policy of vaccinating on-site, among non-Hispanic whites, and among patients with hepatitis C and cirrhosis. In summary, most patients were unprotected against one or more vaccine preventable diseases. The higher coverage rates evident in centers vaccinating on-site suggests a breakdown may occur when patients are referred to alternative vaccination venues.

Cost-effectiveness of universal childhood hepatitis A vaccination in Chile.

Hepatitis A is an important public health problem in Chile. Childhood vaccination has reduced hepatitis A rates in several countries, prompting this evaluation of its cost-effectiveness in Chile. Using a Markov model, we project mass vaccination would reduce hepatitis A cases among birth cohort members and their personal contacts >80%. Vaccination costs of US dollars 5.3-6.4 million would be offset by US dollars 9.2-9.4 million reductions in disease costs. Further, approximately 70 fatal infections would be averted and >4600 quality-adjusted life years would be saved. This analysis supports the cost-effectiveness of universal childhood hepatitis A vaccination in Chile.

Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis A-B vaccine versus hepatitis B vaccine for healthcare and public safety workers in the western United States.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the cost-effectiveness of substituting hepatitis A-B vaccine for hepatitis B vaccine when healthcare and public safety workers in the western United States are immunized to protect against occupational exposures to hepatitis B. PARTICIPANTS: A cohort of 100,000 hypothetical healthcare and public safety workers from 11 western states with hepatitis A rates twice the national average. DESIGN: A Markov model of hepatitis A was developed using estimates from U.S. government databases, published literature, and an expert panel. Added costs of hepatitis A-B vaccine were compared with savings from reduced hepatitis A treatment and work loss. Cost-effectiveness was expressed as the ratio of net costs to quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained. RESULTS: Substituting hepatitis A-B vaccine would prevent 29,796 work-loss-days, 222 hospitalizations, 6 premature deaths, and the loss of 214 QALYs. Added vaccination costs of $5.4 million would be more than offset by $1.9 million and $6.1 million reductions in hepatitis A treatment and work loss costs, respectively. Cost-effectiveness improves as the time horizon is extended, from $232,600 per QALY after 1 year to less than $0 per QALY within 11 years. Estimates are most sensitive to community-wide hepatitis A rates and the degree to which childhood vaccination may reduce future rates. CONCLUSION: For healthcare and public safety workers in western states, substituting hepatitis A-B vaccine for hepatitis B vaccine would reduce morbidity, mortality, and costs.

Effect of middle school entry requirements on hepatitis B vaccination coverage.

We examined hepatitis B immunization coverage in states with and without middle school entry vaccination requirements. Hepatitis B vaccination was initiated and completed more frequently in states with middle school mandates, although near-universal coverage was not obtained. Nonetheless, establishment of mandates in states without them could significantly reduce hepatitis B transmission.

Cost effectiveness of hepatitis A/B versus hepatitis B vaccination for US prison inmates.

Hepatitis B immunization is provided in many US prison systems. We examined the cost effectiveness of substituting bivalent hepatitis A/B vaccine in this setting, considering regional variation in hepatitis A risks and the potential for disease transmission by former prisoners. Where hepatitis A rates are >200, 100-200, and <100% the national average, declines in hepatitis A treatment costs would offset 137, 88, and 40% of the bivalent vaccine's added cost. In the three regions considered, cost effectiveness would be US$ <0, 2131, and 22,819 per life-year saved, respectively. Prison-based hepatitis A/B immunization would meet accepted standards of cost effectiveness throughout the US.

Impact of long-acting growth factors on practice dynamics and patient satisfaction.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify time expended, patient satisfaction, and econometrics associated with short-acting (sargramostim, epoetin alfa) and long-acting (darbepoetin alfa, pegfilgrastim) growth factors. DESIGN: Retrospective resource utilization and prospective two-phase observational study. METHODS: During week 1, time-motion measurements related to patient treatment and drug preparation were collected for scheduling; check-in; phlebotomy; laboratory; and drug preparation, administration, and recording. Drug utilization for one chemotherapy cycle during weeks 2 and 3 was assessed for sargramostim, pegfilgrastim, epoetin alfa, darbepoetin alfa, sargramostim plus epoetin alfa, and pegfilgrastim plus darbepoetin alfa. Patients completed a satisfaction survey. RESULTS: Among 140 patients (mean age 58 yrs), mean chemotherapy cycle duration was 19 days. A total of 268 events were observed. Mean total staff time/patient visit for drug administration was 22.1 minutes, with most time spent on scheduling (5.5 min) and drug preparation, administration, recording (5.2 min). For sargramostim only versus pegfilgrastim only, pegfilgrastim resulted in a 37% reduction (p < 0.01) in all visits and an 85% reduction (p < 0.01) in mean number of doses. For epoetin alfa only versus darbepoetin alfa only, darbepoetin alfa resulted in a 48% reduction (p < 0.01) in mean number of doses. The most common dosage of epoetin alfa was 40,000 U/week (63.6%) and that of darbepoetin alfa was 200 microg every other week (92%), but complete blood counts were obtained weekly. For pegfilgrastim plus darbepoetin alfa versus sargramostim plus epoetin alfa, a 45% reduction (p < 0.01) in total visits and a 77% reduction (p < 0.01) in mean number of doses were noted in the former group. In 69 patients converted to long-acting drugs, 65 actual hours for a single treatment cycle were saved. For patients receiving pegfilgrastim plus darbepoetin alfa, there was a 45% reduction in total clinic visits, 77% reduction in doses, and staff time savings of 1.9 hours/patient/cycle of chemotherapy. Fifty-four patients completed the survey and trended toward neutral in their responses, with moderate disagreement that receiving injections is painful. CONCLUSION: Long-acting growth factors resulted in significant time savings for staff and providers by reducing the number of necessary office visits for drug administration. These time savings can significantly improve the quality of life for patients, as well as nurses, physicians, and caregivers.

Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis A/B vaccine versus hepatitis B vaccine in public sexually transmitted disease clinics.

BACKGROUND: Many patients seen at U.S. sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics are offered hepatitis B vaccination. Substituting hepatitis A/B vaccine would provide additional protection but increase costs. GOAL: The goal was to estimate the cost effectiveness of hepatitis A/B versus B vaccination for 1,000,000 public STD clinic attenders. STUDY DESIGN: A Markov model of hepatitis A outcomes was developed using published literature, U.S. government databases, and expert panel opinion. Added vaccination costs were compared with savings from reduced hepatitis A treatment. Net costs were compared with life-years saved and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained. RESULTS: Substituting hepatitis A/B vaccine would prevent 2263 overt hepatitis A infections, 292 hospitalizations, 8 premature deaths, and the loss of 281 QALYs. Net health system costs would be $20,892 per life-year saved, or $13,397 per QALY gained. CONCLUSION: Substituting hepatitis A/B for hepatitis B vaccine would reduce morbidity and mortality in a cost-effective manner.

An economic assessment of pre-vaccination screening for hepatitis A and B.

OBJECTIVE: The availability of a single vaccine active against hepatitis A and B may facilitate prevention of both infections, but complicates the question of whether to conduct pre-vaccination screening. The authors examined the cost-effectiveness of pre-vaccination screening for several populations: first-year college students, military recruits, travelers to hepatitis A-endemic areas, patients at sexually transmitted disease clinics, and prison inmates. METHODS: Three prevention protocols were examined: (1) screen and defer vaccination until serology results are known; (2) screen and begin vaccination immediately to avoid a missed vaccination opportunity; and (3) vaccinate without screening. Data describing pre-vaccination immunity, vaccine effectiveness, and prevention costs borne by the health system (i.e., serology, vaccine acquisition, and administration) were derived from published literature and U.S. government websites. Using spreadsheet models, the authors calculated the ratio of prevention costs to the number of vaccine protections conferred. RESULTS: The vaccinate without screening protocol was most cost-effective in nine of 10 analyses conducted under baseline assumptions, and in 69 of 80 sensitivity analyses. In each population considered, vaccinate without screening was less costly than and at least equally as effective as screen and begin vaccination. The screen and defer vaccination protocol would reduce costs in seven populations, but effectiveness would also be lower. CONCLUSIONS: Unless directed at vaccination candidates with the highest probability of immunity, pre-vaccination screening for hepatitis A and B immunity is not cost-effective. Balancing cost reduction with reduced effectiveness, screen and defer may be preferred for older travelers and prison inmates.

Regional variation in the cost effectiveness of childhood hepatitis A immunization.

BACKGROUND: Routine childhood hepatitis A immunization is recommended in regions with incidence rates twice the national average, but it may be cost-effective in a wider geographic area. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the costs and benefits of potential hepatitis A immunization of healthy US children in regions with varying hepatitis A incidences. METHODS: We considered vaccination of the 2000 US birth cohort in states defined by historic hepatitis A incidence rates. Infections among potential vaccinees and their personal contacts were predicted from age 2 through 85 years. Net vaccination costs were estimated from health system and societal perspectives and were compared with life-years saved and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained using a 3% discount rate. RESULTS Nationally vaccination would prevent >75 000 cases of overt hepatitis A disease. Approximately two-thirds of health benefits would accrue to personal contacts rather than to vaccinees themselves. In states with incidence rates of > or =200%, 100 to 199%, 50 to 99% and <50% the national average, societal costs per QALY gained would be <0, <0, 13,800 and 63,000 US dollars, respectively. Nationally vaccination would cost 9100 US dollars per QALY gained from the perspective of the health system and 1400 US dollars per QALY gained from society's perspective. Results are most sensitive to vaccination costs and rates of disease transmission through personal contact. CONCLUSION: Childhood hepatitis A vaccination is most cost-effective in areas with the highest incidence rates but would also meet accepted standards of economic efficiency in most of the US. A national immunization policy would prevent substantial morbidity and mortality, with cost effectiveness similar to that of other childhood immunizations.

The cost effectiveness of hepatitis immunization for US college students.

Hepatitis B immunization is recommended for all American children, and hepatitis A immunization is recommended for children who live in areas with elevated disease rates. Because hepatitis A and B occur most commonly in young adults, the authors examined the cost effectiveness of college-based vaccination. They developed epidemiologic models to consider infection risks and disease progression and then compared the cost of vaccination with economic, longevity, and quality of life benefits. Immunization of 100,000 students would prevent 1,403 acute cases of hepatitis A, 929 cases of hepatitis B, and 144 cases of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatitis B vaccination would cost the health system $7,600 per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained but would reduce societal costs by 6%. Hepatitis A/B vaccination would cost the health system dollar 8,500 per QALY but would reduce societal costs by 12%. Until childhood and adolescent vaccination can produce immune cohorts of young adults, college-based hepatitis immunization can reduce disease transmission in a cost-effective manner.