A Systematic Review of Symptoms of Pernicious Anemia.

BACKGROUND: Pernicious anemia (PA) is a type of macrocytic anemia caused by autoimmune gastritis. To facilitate timely diagnosis and treatment of PA there is a pressing need for improved understanding among Healthcare providers of the condition's symptoms and diagnostic criteria. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims to extend existing clinical knowledge on the presentation of PA by determining which symptoms and clinical complications are reported in published adult case studies. METHODS: Relevant studies were identified through electronic searches of PsycINFO, Embase, and MEDLINE, via OvidSP. During data extraction symptoms were categorized according to the International Classification of Diseases and were grouped based on frequency. RESULTS: Symptoms were documented for 103 adults with a diagnosis of PA; the most frequent symptoms were fatigue (55%), loss of sensation in limbs (32%), excessive weight loss (27%), and a sore tongue (23%). CONCLUSIONS: This review highlights the diverse symptomology of adults who are diagnosed with PA. Most symptoms documented in case studies are consistent with the core signs of B12 and folate deficiencies. Research is needed to identify if there are common clusters of PA symptoms that can be used as prompts for diagnostic testing in patients with suspected B12 deficiency.

Plain language titleA Review of Symptoms of Pernicious AnemiaPlain language summaryThis study reviewed case studies that have been written about adults with pernicious anemia, it has documented the frequency of the core symptoms and the impact these have on health.

Development of a Vitamin B12 Deficiency Patient-Reported Outcome Measure for Clinical Practice and Research.

BACKGROUND: It is difficult to recognize vitamin B12 deficiency and to evaluate the effect of B12 treatment due to a broad range of variable clinical symptoms overlapping with other diseases and diagnostic biomarkers that quickly normalize during treatment. This poses a risk of delay in diagnosis and a challenge to uniformly monitor the effect of B12 treatment. There is a need for a new clinical outcome measure suitable for clinical practice and clinical evaluation studies. OBJECTIVE: To develop a Patient-Reported Outcome Measure (PROM) which measures the severity of vitamin B12 deficiency symptoms. METHODS: The B12 PROM was developed by (1) gathering input from experts and literature review to define a construct and develop a conceptual model, (2) processing input from health care providers, scientists, and patients to develop items and response options, and (3) improving items based on the feedback from laypersons, test interviews, semi-structured cognitive interviews with patients, and forward and backward translation (ENG-NL). RESULTS: The B12 PROM includes 62 items grouped into 8 categories of symptoms related to vitamin B12 deficiency (General, Senses, Thinking, In limbs and/or face, Movement, Emotions, Mouth & Abdomen, Urinary tract & Reproductive organs). Cognitive interviews demonstrated good comprehensibility and comprehensiveness. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first step in the development of a disease-specific PROM for vitamin B12 deficiency to measure the burden of symptoms. Further validation and reliability testing are necessary before the PROM can be applied in clinical practice and research.

Plain language titleDevelopment of a Vitamin B12 Deficiency Questionnaire for Clinical Practice and ResearchPlain language summaryThis study is the first step in the development of a questionnaire for vitamin B12 deficiency to measure the severity of vitamin B12 deficiency symptoms. The questionnaire includes 62 items grouped into 8 categories of symptoms related to vitamin B12 deficiency (General, Senses, Thinking, In limbs and/or face, Movement, Emotions, Mouth & Abdomen, Urinary tract & Reproductive organs). Interviews with patients demonstrated good comprehensibility and comprehensiveness of the questionnaire. Further testing is necessary before the questionnaire can be applied in clinical practice and research.

Adherence to Parkinson's disease medication: A case study to illustrate reasons for non-adherence, implications for practice and engaging under-represented participants in research.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease which primarily presents with the core symptoms of rigidity, postural instability, tremor, and bradykinesia. Non-adherence to prescribed PD treatments can have significant ramifications, such as poor symptom control and greater disease burden. Reasons for poor adherence are multifaceted, particularly when medication regimens are complex and often based on perceptual and practical barriers. Additionally, engaging fully non-adherent patients in research is challenging since they may have dropped out of service provision, yet their contribution is vital to fully understand the rationale for non-adherence. This paper aims to present a case study on the perspectives of one person with PD, a participant in a previously published qualitative study investigating the barriers and facilitators to medication adherence in PD. In this paper, the participant's diagnostic journey is described, and experiences of medical consultations are summarised to explain their reasons for not adhering to any of the standard UK PD treatments prescribed. The participant's preferences for using Vitamin B1 (thiamine) injections to manage the symptoms are reported and the rationale for doing so is discussed. We consider the case through the lens of a behavioural science approach, drawing on health psychology theory, the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF), to inform the review and the practical challenges faced when analysing the data for this participant. Implications for pharmacy practice, in particular, are also put forward with view to ensuring that patients such as Mr. Wilkinson are provided with the opportunity to discuss treatment choices and self-management of long-term conditions such as PD. We also discuss the importance of reaching under-represented members of the population in medication adherence research, which embraces the principles of equality, diversity, and inclusion in research.

Using the common-sense model of illness representations to explore individuals' experiences and perceptions of migraine and its management in the United Kingdom.

OBJECTIVES: Migraine is considered a chronic health condition that impacts both quality of life and psychological wellbeing. People with migraines use a range of management strategies, which include pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments. The aim of this study was to explore individuals' experiences and perceptions of migraines and its treatment using the Common-Sense Model (CSM) of Illness Representations. METHODS: Semi-structured, one-to-one interviews were conducted with eleven individuals with a history of migraine to explore their experiences and perceptions of migraine and its treatment. Participants were recruited from across the United Kingdom via convenience sampling using social media advertisement. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and qualitative data were analysed using theoretical framework analysis using the CSM. RESULTS: The three dimensions of the CSM were mapped on to the qualitative data. These were: (i) Cognitive representations of migraine, within five domains: (a) identity of migraine, (b) perceived causes, (c) perceived timeline, (d) perceived control/cure, and (e) perceived consequences; (ii) Emotional representations of migraine relating to (a) migraine specific emotions and (b) emotional representation of the impact of migraine; and (iii) Coping/self-management behaviours, namely (a) self-medicating behaviours and (b) care-seeking behaviours. No incongruous data were found; therefore, no further thematic analysis was required. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to apply the CSM to migraine for framework analysis of qualitative data in this way. The findings illustrate the emotional impact of migraine and the range of illness perceptions associated with appropriate self-management. The data will be used to design a questionnaire for quantitative studies to investigate the extent to which these perceptions are generalizable to the wider population of people who experience migraines.

Changing medication-related beliefs: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

OBJECTIVE: Medication-related beliefs, for example, beliefs that medicines are unnecessary or that side effects are likely, can influence medication behaviors and experiences, potentially impacting quality of life and mortality. At times, it may be useful to change medication-related beliefs, for example, to reduce patients' concerns about side effects when extensive evidence suggests side effects are rare. Currently we do not know the most effective methods to address medication beliefs. METHOD: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that measured medication-related beliefs in people prescribed medication for long-term condition(s). We extracted data on behavior change techniques (BCTs), belief measure, study and patient characteristics, risk of bias, and quality of description. RESULTS: We identified 56 trials randomizing 8,714 participants. In meta-analysis, interventions led to small-to-medium effects (n = 36, Hedges' g = .362, 95% confidence interval [CI] [.20, .52], p < .001) in increasing beliefs about medication need/benefit and reducing concerns about medication (n = 21, Hedges' g = -.435, 95% CI [-0.72, -0.15], p < .01). Effect sizes were higher for interventions that reported a significant effect on adherence. Problem solving, information about health consequences, and social support (unspecified) were the most prevalent BCTs. Fourteen BCTs were associated with significant effects on need/benefit beliefs and four BCTs were associated with significant effects on concern beliefs. CONCLUSION: It is possible to modify medication-related beliefs using a range of interventions and techniques. Future research should explore the best ways to operationalize these BCTs for specific health conditions to support medication beliefs and improve adherence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Development of a Questionnaire to Measure Public Perceptions of the Role of Community Pharmacy in Public Health (PubPharmQ).

BACKGROUND: Community pharmacies are well placed to provide public-health interventions within primary care settings. This study aimed to establish the general public's perceptions of community pharmacy-based public-health services in the UK by designing a structured questionnaire to assess the barriers and facilitators to optimizing this role. METHODS: A standardized questionnaire was developed informed by the literature, additional semi-structured interviews, and synthesis of key findings with the authors' previous research based on data generated from eight focus groups. The original 42-item questionnaire was distributed online from May to June 2021 via social media platforms to capture the views of non-regular pharmacy users. Following exploratory factor analysis, and Cronbach's alpha analysis, total Likert scale response scores were calculated. RESULTS: Of the 306 responders, 76.8% were female with a mean age of 34.5 years (SD = 15.09). The most prevalent pharmacy use reported was 1-2 times a year (28.1%). Exploratory factor analysis revealed four scales: Expertise, Role in Public Health, Privacy, and Relationship (18 items) with acceptable internal consistency and good face and content validity. Awareness of well-established pharmacy services was high; however, responders demonstrated poor awareness of public-health-related services and low recognition of pharmacy expertise for this role. A lack of an established relationship with community pharmacies and privacy concerns were also perceived barriers. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, considerable effort is needed to increase public awareness and address these concerns if strategic plans to utilize community pharmacy in the delivery of public-health policy are to be successful. The PubPharmQ provides a novel, structured questionnaire to measure the public's perceptions of community pharmacy's role in public health.

The Role of Medication Beliefs in COVID-19 Vaccine and Booster Uptake in Healthcare Workers: An Exploratory Study.

Illness and medication beliefs have shown to predict COVID-19 vaccination behaviour in the general population, but this relationship has yet to be demonstrated in healthcare staff. This research aimed to explore the potential explanatory value of illness and medication beliefs on the COVID-19 vaccination uptake of a sample of patient-facing healthcare workers (HCWs). A web-based questionnaire-measuring beliefs about vaccinations (the BMQ), perceptions of COVID-19 (the BIPQ), vaccine hesitancy, and vaccine uptake-was targeted to HCWs via social media platforms between May-July 2022. Open text responses allowed participants to provide explanations for any delay in vaccine uptake. A total of 91 participants completed the questionnaire. Most respondents (77.1%, n = 64) had received three doses of the COVID-19 vaccination, and vaccination uptake (number of doses received) was predicted by Vaccine Concerns, Vaccine Hesitancy, and their Necessity-Concerns Differential score. Vaccine Hesitancy was predicted by Necessity, Concerns, and Overuse scores, as well as Necessity-Concerns Differential scores. Delay in Vaccine Uptake could only be predicted for Dose 3 (Booster). Qualitative data revealed that hesitant respondents were "unable to take time off work" for vaccination and that some had concerns over vaccine safety. In conclusion, illness and medication beliefs have potential value in predicting vaccine hesitancy and uptake in healthcare workers. Interventions to improve vaccination uptake in this population should address concerns about vaccine safety and releasing staff for vaccination booster appointments should be prioritised. Future research should further investigate the relationship between illness and medication beliefs and COVID-19 vaccine uptake in a larger sample of healthcare workers.

Development of a Positive Psychology Well-Being Intervention in a Community Pharmacy Setting.

Background: Community pharmacies are well-placed to deliver well-being interventions; however, to date, nothing has been produced specifically for this setting. The aim of this study was to develop a positive psychology intervention suitable for a community pharmacy setting with the goal of increasing the well-being of community members. Methods: Intervention development consisted of three steps: Step 1-identify the evidence-base and well-being model to underpin the basis of the intervention (Version 1); Step 2-model the intervention and gather user feedback to produce Version 2, and Step 3-revisit the evidence-base and refine the intervention to produce Version 3. Results: Findings from nine studies (seven RCTs, one cross-sectional, one N-1 design plus user feedback were applied to model a 6-week 'Prescribing Happiness (P-Hap)' intervention, underpinned by the PERMA model plus four other components from the positive psychology literature (Three Good Things, Utilising Your Signature Strengths in New Ways, Best Possible Selves and Character Strengths). A PERMA-based diary was designed to be completed 3 days a week as part of the intervention. Conclusions: This work is an important development which will direct the future implementation of interventions to support well-being in this novel setting. The next stage is to gain the perspectives of external stakeholders on the feasibility of delivering the P-Hap for its adoption into community pharmacy services in the future.

Perceived threat of COVID-19, attitudes towards vaccination, and vaccine hesitancy: A prospective longitudinal study in the UK.

OBJECTIVES: Using the Health Belief Model as a conceptual framework, we investigated the association between attitudes towards COVID-19, COVID-19 vaccinations, and vaccine hesitancy and change in these variables over a 9-month period in a UK cohort. METHODS: The COPE study cohort (n = 11,113) was recruited via an online survey at enrolment in March/April 2020. The study was advertised via the HealthWise Wales research registry and social media. Follow-up data were available for 6942 people at 3 months (June/July 2020) and 5037 at 12 months (March/April 2021) post-enrolment. Measures included demographics, perceived threat of COVID-19, perceived control, intention to accept or decline a COVID-19 vaccination, and attitudes towards vaccination. Logistic regression models were fitted cross-sectionally at 3 and 12 months to assess the association between motivational factors and vaccine hesitancy. Longitudinal changes in motivational variables for vaccine-hesitant and non-hesitant groups were examined using mixed-effect analysis of variance models. RESULTS: Fear of COVID-19, perceived susceptibility to COVID-19, and perceived personal control over COVID-19 infection transmission decreased between the 3- and 12-month surveys. Vaccine hesitancy at 12 months was independently associated with low fear of the disease and more negative attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination. Specific barriers to COVID-19 vaccine uptake included concerns about safety and efficacy in light of its rapid development, mistrust of government and pharmaceutical companies, dislike of coercive policies, and perceived lack of relaxation in COVID-19-related restrictions as the vaccination programme progressed. CONCLUSIONS: Decreasing fear of COVID-19, perceived susceptibility to the disease, and perceptions of personal control over reducing infection-transmission may impact future COVID-19 vaccination uptake.

Cohort profile: The UK COVID-19 Public Experiences (COPE) prospective longitudinal mixed-methods study of health and well-being during the SARSCoV2 coronavirus pandemic.

Public perceptions of pandemic viral threats and government policies can influence adherence to containment, delay, and mitigation policies such as physical distancing, hygienic practices, use of physical barriers, uptake of testing, contact tracing, and vaccination programs. The UK COVID-19 Public Experiences (COPE) study aims to identify determinants of health behaviour using the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation (COM-B) model using a longitudinal mixed-methods approach. Here, we provide a detailed description of the demographic and self-reported health characteristics of the COPE cohort at baseline assessment, an overview of data collected, and plans for follow-up of the cohort. The COPE baseline survey was completed by 11,113 UK adult residents (18+ years of age). Baseline data collection started on the 13th of March 2020 (10-days before the introduction of the first national COVID-19 lockdown in the UK) and finished on the 13th of April 2020. Participants were recruited via the HealthWise Wales (HWW) research registry and through social media snowballing and advertising (Facebook®, Twitter®, Instagram®). Participants were predominantly female (69%), over 50 years of age (68%), identified as white (98%), and were living with their partner (68%). A large proportion (67%) had a college/university level education, and half reported a pre-existing health condition (50%). Initial follow-up plans for the cohort included in-depth surveys at 3-months and 12-months after the first UK national lockdown to assess short and medium-term effects of the pandemic on health behaviour and subjective health and well-being. Additional consent will be sought from participants at follow-up for data linkage and surveys at 18 and 24-months after the initial UK national lockdown. A large non-random sample was recruited to the COPE cohort during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, which will enable longitudinal analysis of the determinants of health behaviour and changes in subjective health and well-being over the course of the pandemic.

Public Attitudes towards Medicinal Waste and Medicines Reuse in a 'Free Prescription' Healthcare System.

This study investigates public attitudes towards medicinal waste and medicines reuse within a 'free prescription' healthcare system. A quantitative online survey was employed in a sample drawn from the population of Wales, where prescription medicines have been 'free' since 2007. Qualitative interviews informed the content of the attitude statements with categorical or ordinal response options assigned. The questionnaire was hosted on the HealthWise Wales platform for 1 year from October 2017. Of the 5584 respondents, 67.2% had at least one medicine on repeat prescription. Overall, 89.1% held strong concerns about medicinal waste. High acceptance for the reuse of prescription medicines which have been returned unused by patients to pharmacies was reported for tablets (78.7%) and capsules (75.1%) if the medicine is checked by a pharmacist first (92.4% rated essential). Concerns identified related to tampering of packs (69.2%) and the need for hygienic storage (65.4%). However, those working in healthcare had less concern about the safety of reusing medicines. The level of public acceptance for the reuse of medication was higher than previously reported. This is the largest survey to capture these views to date, which has implications for the future design of medicines reuse schemes.

Pharmacy Technicians' Roles and Responsibilities in the Community Pharmacy Sector: A Welsh Perspective.

Background: Healthcare delivery models in Wales are changing in response to unprecedented pressure on the National Health Service UK (NHS). Community pharmacies will be prioritised to address public health and clinical needs at a local level. To support the delivery of the new model, pharmacy technicians must be enabled and developed to optimize their roles. The aim of the study was to establish existing roles of pharmacy technicians working in the community pharmacy sector in Wales and to explore barriers and enablers to development. Methods: A combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies was used, with the main focus on quantitative methods. A total of 83 participants completed an online questionnaire and additional qualitative data were obtained from four semi-structured telephone interviews. Results: The dispensing and final accuracy checking of medicines were reported as core functions of the community pharmacy technician role, with an average of 43% and 57% of time being spent on these roles, respectively. There was some evidence of engagement in leadership and management roles (average of 19%) and limited evidence of delivery of services (average of 6%). Conclusions: There is scope to enable community pharmacy technicians to optimize and further develop their roles. Enablers include the effective use of delegation, workplace support, improved staffing levels and the prioritisation of extended pharmacy technician roles.

Deprescribing of Medicines in Care Homes-A Five-Year Evaluation of Primary Care Pharmacist Practices.

(1) Background: This project evaluates the outcomes of a novel pharmacy-led model of deprescribing unnecessary medications for care home patients. A feasibility study was conducted in 2015 to explore exposure to inappropriate polypharmacy in patients residing in care homes over a one-year timescale. The aim of this study was to present the results of this ongoing service evaluation over a five-year period. (2) Methods: Data collection and risk assessment tools developed during the feasibility study were used to measure the prevalence, nature, and impact of deprescribing interventions by primary care pharmacists over a five-year period. A random sample of approximately 5% of safety interventions were screened twice yearly by the pharmacist leads as part of standard practice. (3) Results: Over a period of five years there were 23,955 interventions (mean 2.3 per patient) reported from the 10,405 patient reviews undertaken. Deprescribing accounted for 53% of total estimated financial drug savings, equating to £431,493; and 16.1% of all interventions were related to safety. (4) Conclusions: Medication reviews in care homes, undertaken by primary care pharmacists who are linked to GP practices, generate a wide range of interventions commonly involving deprescribing, which contributes significantly to the continuous optimisation of the prescribing and monitoring of medicines.

The public's perception of the role of community pharmacists in Wales.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the general public's perceptions of the community pharmacist's (CP) role in Wales by exploring understanding, awareness of services provided and potential interventions for promoting the role of CPs. METHODS: Qualitative methodology using focus group (FG) discussions exploring opinions, facilitated by a moderator (pharmacist) and an assistant. Topics discussed included the following: what a CP does; reasons for visiting; from whom they seek advice on medicines or lifestyle issues; use of traditional and newer services and promotion of services. The groups, totalling 32 participants, represented non-users and users of pharmacy services, that is pupils from a local secondary school (x1 group), people from the local community (x3) and patients plus carers from a Parkinson's disease group (x1). FG discussions were recorded and transcribed verbatim, and analysis was undertaken to identify themes. KEY FINDINGS: Traditional dispensing and supply of medicines roles were clearly recognised, but poor awareness of the newer services emerged, particularly in public health roles. CP's professionalism was acknowledged, but there was confusion over where they 'fit' within the National Health Service or with General Practitioners, with concerns or misconceptions raised over the impact of commercialism on professionalism. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, the public is accepting of the extended role of CPs and would engage with CPs for a wider range of services. However, there is a lack of awareness of what public health services are available. Considerable work is needed to increase public awareness, during the strategic development of these services in Wales.

The redistribution of medicines: could it become a reality?

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: Prescription medicines that are returned unused to pharmacies in the United Kingdom (UK) cannot be supplied (or redistributed) to other patients. The aim of the study was to investigate whether or not consensus could be achieved between pharmacists on the barriers and potential solutions they perceive towards the redistribution of returned medicines. METHODS: A two-round electronic modified Delphi study was employed. Statements were generated following qualitative interviews (n = 29) with doctors, nurses and pharmacists from primary and secondary care from one Health Board (HB) in South East Wales. The Delphi panel were asked to rate the degree to which they agreed (or disagreed) with each statement. The panel was recruited via an email invitation forwarded to all hospital (n = 70), primary care (n = 11) and community pharmacists (n = 77) from one HB in South East Wales. KEY FINDINGS: Two rounds of Delphi were completed by 17 pharmacists. Consensus was achieved for seven (n = 26) 'barrier' and seven (n = 16) 'solution' statements. From the statements which achieved consensus, it was identified that the following criteria would need to be met for pharmacists to potentially accept the redistribution of medicines in solid dosage forms (tablets and capsules): protection for pharmacists; guidance from the professional regulator; tamper evident seals; 'as new' packaging; technologies to indicate inappropriate storage and public engagement. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that pharmacists would potentially be willing to redistribute medicines in solid dosage forms if certain criteria are met.

Antibiotic intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines: barriers to adherence and possible solutions.

OBJECTIVES: To identify reasons for poor adherence to antibiotic intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines and to explore the possible solutions. To rate the importance of the barriers and solutions identified, as perceived by a multidisciplinary expert panel. METHODS: Three-round Delphi study in an expert panel comprising doctors, nurses and pharmacists, with concurrent semi-structured interviews. KEY FINDINGS: The three rounds of the Delphi were completed by 13 out of the 30 healthcare professionals invited to participate. No nurses were included in the final round. Consensus was achieved for 28 out of 35 statements, with the most important barrier being that of inappropriate antibiotic review at the weekend, and the most important solution being to raise guideline awareness. The findings from the seven interviews (three doctors, two pharmacists and two nurses) complemented those from the Delphi study, although they provided more specific suggestions on how to improve the adherence to guidelines. CONCLUSION: This study, using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, has identified several barriers to explore further and offered many practical solutions to improve practice. The importance of a multidisciplinary approach to address guideline non-adherence was emphasised. Clinical guidelines must be well publicised and well written to prevent a feeling of guideline saturation in the healthcare populous. Novel approaches may have to be investigated in order to further encourage adherence with antibiotic intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines.

Development and validation of the Medication-Related Consultation Framework (MRCF).

OBJECTIVES: To develop and test a framework for evaluating the consultation skills of practitioners undertaking medication-related consultations. METHODS: Key components of medication-related consultations were identified through a literature review and compiled to form an initial consultation skills framework. This was iteratively refined through consultation with experts (n=21) to form the Medication-Related Consultation Framework (MRCF). Psychometric testing was undertaken by analyzing pharmacists' (n=10) assessment of fifteen pre-recorded simulated consultations. RESULTS: The MRCF consisted of 46 consultation behaviors, grouped into five sections. Performance was rated at individual behavior, framework section and global consultation levels. The MRCF discriminated between good, satisfactory and poor consultations at the global rating level (p<0.01) with good test-retest reliability (rho=0.59-0.95) and moderate inter-assessor reliability (Kendall's W=0.67). There was also good internal consistency for the five sections (Cronbach's alphas=0.58-0.97). CONCLUSIONS: The MRCF demonstrated good psychometric properties at the global and section rating levels. Some inconsistencies in assessors' ratings of individual consultation behaviors were indentified, which may represent a future training need. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The MRCF provides healthcare professionals with a patient-centered consultation structure, serving to identify medication-related needs and potentially support adherence. It also allows the quality of a practitioner's consultation to be evaluated.

The development of the Self-Medicating Scale (SMS): a scale to measure people's beliefs about self-medication.

OBJECTIVE: We describe the development of a reliable and valid measure of people's beliefs about self-medication. To achieve this, student self-medication beliefs and behaviours in response to acute pain were investigated. Specific objectives were to establish the internal reliability plus content and construct validity of this scale. METHOD: The nine item 'Self-Medicating Scale (SMS)' was developed following one to one interviews conducted with a purposive sample of 10 lay people in 2001 to explore their self-medicating beliefs and behaviour. The SMS was completed by 304 undergraduate pharmacy students in March 2006, along with measures of self-reported over the counter (OTC) analgesic use, pain severity and other non-pharmacological methods of pain relief, using a cross-sectional design. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted on SMS items using Maximum Likelihood extraction and Varimax rotation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Factor structure of the SMS and relationships between SMS scales and medication-taking behaviour. RESULTS: Factor analysis of the SMS revealed three factor structures which were named 'Reluctance', 'Don't think twice' and 'Run its course' (each three item scales with good Cronbach's alpha 0.82, 0.77 and 0.75 respectively). Of the 304 respondents, 93% reported having experienced pain over the past month and nearly three quarters of these indicated that they had self-medicated with OTC analgesics (mean 10.8 doses). Statistically significant differences or associations were found in all three SMS scores and each of the main outcome variables i.e. whether or not analgesics were taken, number of doses of OTC analgesics taken and number of non-pharmacological remedies tried. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that the SMS possesses good internal reliability, plus good content and construct validity indicating that it is a useful measure of self-medication beliefs. More work is needed to extend these findings to the wider general public and with other OTC medications.

Reasons for the use of mild analgesics among English students.

OBJECTIVE: Mild analgesics such as paracetamol and ibuprofen are amongst the most commonly used over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. However, little is known about what beliefs people hold about them. The present paper examines: (a) the patterns of mild analgesic usage in a sample of university students, (b) their beliefs about the associated risks and the necessity of taking mild analgesics, and (c) the association between beliefs about analgesics and self-reports of their use. SETTING: A convenience sample of 333 students studying at a large English University were approached on the University campus. Of these, 291 agreed to participate, yielding an 87% response rate. METHOD: This study employed a cross-sectional design, with all participants completing the same questionnaire concerning their use of mild painkillers, such as paracetamol and ibuprofen, and beliefs about their use. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Four questions asked about their patterns of mild analgesic use in the past month, specifically (a) have they taken analgesics, (b) how often did they take analgesics when they had symptoms, (c) did they take more than a single dose of 1-2 tablets at one time, and (d) did they exceed the maximum dose. RESULTS: Almost all of the 291 participants reported symptoms in the past month, with over two thirds treating with mild analgesics, and one sixth exceeding the maximum dose. Only 17% indicated that there were short-term risks of using mild analgesics, although half indicated that there were long-term risks. The risks that were identified generally did not conform with current medical thinking. Perceptions of risks were not generally associated with self-reports of analgesic usage. Rather, respondents who thought analgesics were more necessary were more likely to report taking analgesics, report taking more analgesics, and report exceeding the maximum dose. CONCLUSION: These results indicate the need for caution in current moves to encourage self-medication. If people are unaware of the risks of drugs such as paracetamol or ibuprofen, then they may only contact health professionals after they experience adverse effects.

Identifying criteria for the assessment of pharmacy students' communication skills with patients.

OBJECTIVES: To identify criteria by which patients can assess the communication skills of pharmacy students. METHOD: Potential assessment criteria were generated from 2 main sources: a literature review and a focus group discussion. A modified two-round Delphi survey was subsequently conducted with 35 professionals who were actively involved in teaching and assessing communication skills of pharmacy students to determine the importance and reliability of each criterion. RESULTS: Consensus ratings identified 7 criteria that were important measures of pharmacy students' communication skills and could be reliably assessed by patients. CONCLUSIONS: A modified two-round Delphi consultation survey successfully identified criteria that can be used by patients to assess the communication skills of pharmacy undergraduates. Future work will examine the feasibility of using patients as assessors of communication skills of pharmacy students, preregistration pharmacists, and qualified pharmacists.