Quantum bath suppression in a superconducting circuit by immersion cooling.

Quantum circuits interact with the environment via several temperature-dependent degrees of freedom. Multiple experiments to-date have shown that most properties of superconducting devices appear to plateau out at T ≈ 50 mK - far above the refrigerator base temperature. This is for example reflected in the thermal state population of qubits, in excess numbers of quasiparticles, and polarisation of surface spins - factors contributing to reduced coherence. We demonstrate how to remove this thermal constraint by operating a circuit immersed in liquid 3He. This allows to efficiently cool the decohering environment of a superconducting resonator, and we see a continuous change in measured physical quantities down to previously unexplored sub-mK temperatures. The 3He acts as a heat sink which increases the energy relaxation rate of the quantum bath coupled to the circuit a thousand times, yet the suppressed bath does not introduce additional circuit losses or noise. Such quantum bath suppression can reduce decoherence in quantum circuits and opens a route for both thermal and coherence management in quantum processors.

Cost effectiveness of a community based prevention and treatment of acute malnutrition programme in Mumbai slums, India.

Children in slums are at high risk of acute malnutrition and death. Cost-effectiveness of community-based management of severe acute malnutrition programmes has been demonstrated previously, but there is limited evidence in the context of urban slums where programme cost structure is likely to vary tremendously. This study assessed the cost-utility of adding a community based prevention and treatment for acute malnutrition intervention to Government of India Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) standard care for children in Mumbai slums. The intervention is delivered by community health workers in collaboration with ICDS Anganwadi community health workers. The analysis used a decision tree model to compare the costs and effects of the two options: standard ICDS services with the intervention and prevention versus standard ICDS services alone. The model used outcome and cost data from the Society for Nutrition, Education & Health Action's Child Health and Nutrition programme in Mumbai slums, which delivered services to 12,362 children over one year from 2013 to 2014. An activity-based cost model was used, with calculated costs based on programme financial records and key informant interviews. Cost data were coupled with programme effectiveness data to estimate disability adjusted life years (DALYs) averted. The community based prevention and treatment programme averted 15,016 DALYs (95% Uncertainty Interval [UI]: 12,246-17,843) at an estimated cost of $23 per DALY averted (95%UI:19-28) and was thus highly cost-effective. This study shows that ICDS Anganwadi community health workers can work efficiently with community health workers to increase the prevention and treatment coverage in slums in India and can lead to policy recommendations at the state, and potentially the national level, to promote such programmes in Indian slums as a cost-effective approach to tackling moderate and severe acute malnutrition.

Historical and Projected Surface Temperature over India during the 20th and 21st century.

Surface Temperature (ST) over India has increased by ~0.055 K/decade during 1860-2005 and follows the global warming trend. Here, the natural and external forcings (e.g., natural and anthropogenic) responsible for ST variability are studied from Coupled Model Inter-comparison phase 5 (CMIP5) models during the 20th century and projections during the 21st century along with seasonal variability. Greenhouse Gases (GHG) and Land Use (LU) are the major factors that gave rise to warming during the 20th century. Anthropogenic Aerosols (AA) have slowed down the warming rate. The CMIP5 projection over India shows a sharp increase in ST under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 8.5 where it reaches a maximum of 5 K by the end of the 21st century. Under RCP2.6 emission scenarios, ST increases up to the year 2050 and decreases afterwards. The seasonal variability of ST during the 21st century shows significant increase during summer. Analysis of rare heat and cold events for 2080-2099 relative to a base period of 1986-2006 under RCP8.5 scenarios reveals that both are likely to increase substantially. However, by controlling the regional AA and LU change in India, a reduction in further warming over India region might be achieved.

Using Positive Deviance to Understand the Uptake of Optimal Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices by Mothers in an Urban Slum of Mumbai.

Objectives Positive deviance research seeks out well-nourished children living in disadvantaged contexts to understand local growth-promoting behaviors. This study explored the factors that influence the uptake of infant and young child feeding behaviors among mothers. Methods Children with a height-for-age z-score (HAZ) > 0 (n = 10) or a HAZ < -2.0 (n = 12) were purposefully selected from households enrolled in a community management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) program in an urban slum of Mumbai, India. Qualitative methods were employed by means of semi-structured key informant interviews with positive and non-positive deviant mothers. Eligibility was restricted to households with limited resources and more than one child. A 24-h dietary recall and anthropometric measurements were taken for the index child. An observation checklist assessed household hygiene. Data analysis was based on the Grounded Theory of qualitative research. Results Positive deviant mothers (those with children with a HAZ > 0) largely exhibited optimal infant and young child feeding practices explained by maternal information seeking behaviors; mothers acknowledging the importance of maternal health; and social support. The relationship between mother and health worker seemed to influence how well they listened to the health workers' recommendations. Across all households, the daily consumption of high-energy, processed foods was apparent. Conclusions Practical considerations include exploring how to tailor CMAM programs to include social support and counseling training for health workers to engage more closely with mothers; exploring the feasibility of a women's social group for mothers to share information on child rearing; and teaching mothers about healthy eating and the link between nutrition and health.

Effect of wearable sensor dynamics on physical activity estimates: A comparison between SCI vs. healthy individuals.

Accuracy of physical activity estimates predicted by activity monitoring technologies may be affected by device location, analysis algorithms, type of technology (i.e. wearable/stickable) and population demographics (disability) being studied. Consequently, the main purpose of this investigation was to study such sensor dynamics (i.e. effect of device location, type and population demographics on energy expenditure estimates) of two commercial activity monitors. It was hypothesized that device location, population studied (disability), choice of proprietary algorithm and type of technology used will significantly impact the accuracy of the predicted physical activity metrics. 10 healthy controls and eight individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) performed structured activities in a laboratory environment. All participants wore, (i) three ActiGraph-G3TX's one each on their wrist, waist & ankle, (ii) a stickable activity monitor (Metria-IH1) on their upper-arm and (3) a Cosmed-K4B2 metabolic unit, while performing sedentary (lying), low intensity (walk 50 steps at self-speed) and vigorous activity (a 6 minute walk test). To validate the hypothesis, the energy expenditures (EE) predicted by ActiGraph-GT3X and Metria-IH1 were benchmarked with estimated EE per Cosmed K4B2 metabolic unit. To verify the step count accuracy predicted by ActiGraph-GT3X's and Metria-IH1, the manually calculated step count during the low intensity activity were compared to estimates from both devices. Results suggest that Metria-IH1 out-performed ActiGraph-GT3X in estimating EE during sedentary activity in both groups. The device location and population demographics, significantly affected the accuracy of predicted estimates. In conclusion, selecting activity monitor locations, analysis algorithm and choice of technology plays based on the movement threshold of population being studied can pave a better way for reliable healthcare decisions and data analytics in population with SCI.

Microbiota metabolite regulation of host immune homeostasis: a mechanistic missing link.

Metazoans predominantly co-exist with symbiotic microorganisms called the microbiota. Metagenomic surveys of the microbiota reveal a diverse ecosystem of microbes particularly in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Perturbations in the GI microbiota in higher mammals (i.e., humans) are linked to diseases with variegated symptomology including inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, and auto-inflammatory disorders. Indeed, studies using germ-free mice (lacking a microbiota) confirm that host development and homeostasis are dependent on the microbiota. A long-known key feature of the GI tract microbiota is metabolizing host indigestible dietary matter for maximum energy extraction; however, host signaling pathways are greatly influenced by the microbiota as well. In line with these observations, recent research has revealed that metabolites produced strictly by select microbiota members are mechanistic regulators of host cell functions. In this review, we discuss two major classes of microbiota-produced metabolites: short-chain fatty acids and tryptophan metabolites. We describe the known important roles for these metabolites in shaping host immunity and comment on the current status and future directions for microbiota metabolomics research.

IL-15 complexes induce NK- and T-cell responses independent of type I IFN signaling during rhinovirus infection.

Rhinoviruses are among the most common viruses to infect man, causing a range of serious respiratory diseases including exacerbations of asthma and COPD. Type I IFN and IL-15 are thought to be required for antiviral immunity; however, their function during rhinovirus infection in vivo is undefined. In RV-infected human volunteers, IL-15 protein expression in fluid from the nasal mucosa and in bronchial biopsies was increased. In mice, RV induced type I IFN-dependent expressions of IL-15 and IL-15Rα, which in turn were required for NK- and CD8(+) T-cell responses. Treatment with IL-15-IL-15Rα complexes (IL-15c) boosted RV-induced expression of IL-15, IL-15Rα, IFN-γ, CXCL9, and CXCL10 followed by recruitment of activated, IFN-γ-expressing NK, CD8(+), and CD4(+) T cells. Treating infected IFNAR1(-/-) mice with IL-15c similarly increased IL-15, IL-15Rα, IFN-γ, and CXCL9 (but not CXCL10) expression also followed by NK-, CD8(+)-, and CD4(+)-T-cell recruitment and activation. We have demonstrated that type I IFN-induced IFN-γ and cellular immunity to RV was mediated by IL-15 and IL-15Rα. Importantly, we also show that IL-15 could be induced via a type I IFN-independent mechanism by IL-15 complex treatment, which in turn was sufficient to drive IFN-γ expression and lymphocyte responses.

Investigation of IL-6 and IL-10 signalling via mathematical modelling.

Steatosis, i.e., the accumulation of fat in hepatocytes, plays an important role in the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It has been shown that STAT3 activation is involved in a decrease of lipid accumulation while C∕EBP is correlated with an increase of fat content and steatosis. It is known that STAT3 and C∕EBP are activated by IL-6 and that IL-6 signalling is also affected by IL-10, even though the exact mechanism is unclear. This paper develops a model for IL-6 and IL-10 signal transduction and then investigates the effect that stimulation with these cytokines has on the transcription factor dynamics. In an initial step, some parameters of a previously developed IL-6 signalling model are re-estimated based upon newly developed experimental data for the Jak-STAT pathway. Furthermore, the Erk-C∕EBP pathway model is extended to also include the activated transcription factor C∕EBP in the nucleus. Since IL-10 signals through the Jak-STAT but not the Erk-C∕EBP pathway, a model was developed which includes interaction between IL-6 and IL-10 signalling as both mechanisms share signal transduction through the Jak-STAT pathway. Based upon the model, the activity ratio of Jak-STAT and Erk-C∕EBP was investigated for different stimulation levels of IL-6 and IL-10.

Androgens selectively protect against apoptosis in hippocampal neurones.

Androgens can protect neurones from injury, although androgen neuroprotection is not well characterised in terms of either specificity or mechanism. In the present study, we compared the ability of androgens to protect neurones against a panel of insults, empirically determined to induce cell death by apoptotic or non-apoptotic mechanisms. Three criteria defining but not inclusive of apoptosis are: protection by caspase inhibition, protection by protein synthesis inhibition and the presence of pyknotic nuclei. According to these criteria, beta-amyloid, staurosporine, and Apoptosis Activator II induced cell death involving apoptosis, whereas hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), iron, calcium ionophore and 3-nitropropionic acid induced cell death featuring non-apoptotic characteristics. Pretreatment of hippocampal neurones with testosterone or dihydrotestosterone attenuated cell death induced by beta-amyloid, staurosporine and Apoptosis Activator II, but none of the other insults. The anti-oxidant Trolox did not reduce cell death induced by beta-amyloid, staurosporine and Apoptosis Activator II, but did protect against H(2)O(2) and iron. Similarly, a supra-physiological concentration of oestrogen reduced cell death induced by H(2)O(2) and iron, an effect not observed with androgens. We also show that activation of oestrogen pathways was not necessary for androgen neuroprotection. These data suggest that androgens directly activate a neuroprotective mechanism specific to inhibition of cell death involving apoptosis. Determining the specificity of androgen neuroprotection may enable the development of androgen compounds for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Efficacy and tolerability of cefditoren pivoxil in uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections in Indian patients.

BACKGROUND: Uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections (uSSSI) are commonly encountered community-acquired infections and are typically confined to the superficial layers of the skin. Hence, they seldom lead to the destruction of skin structures. AIMS: To evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of cefditoren pivoxil in uSSSI in Indian patients. METHODS: One hundred and seventy-eight patients diagnosed with uncomplicated SSSI were enrolled in this randomized, comparative, multicentric study. Patients received either cefditoren pivoxil or cefdinir for ten days. Efficacy was assessed both clinically and microbiologically. Safety evaluation consisted of reporting of type, frequency, severity, and causal relationship of adverse events. RESULTS: One hundred and fifty-one patients completed the study. Clinical and bacteriological efficacy of cefditoren pivoxil was comparable to that of cefdinir in the treatment of uSSSI. One hundred and five patients were eligible for per protocol (PP) analysis of bacteriological outcome and clinical efficacy. Clinical cure or improvement was achieved in 98.00% patients treated with cefditoren pivoxil and 98.18% patients treated with cefdinir. In the modified Intent to Treat (mITT) patient population, clinical cure or improvement was recorded in 97.33% patients treated with cefditoren pivoxil and 96.20% patients treated with cefdinir. Microbiological eradication (or presumed eradication) was recorded in 88.00% patients treated with cefditoren pivoxil and 94.55% patients treated with cefdinir. The above differences in the outcome rates between the two drugs were not statistically significant. Six adverse events (AEs) (two in cefditoren group and four in cefdinir group) were reported in this study. CONCLUSION: Cefditoren pivoxil 200 mg b.i.d. was effective and well tolerated in the treatment of uSSSI.

Progesterone attenuates oestrogen neuroprotection via downregulation of oestrogen receptor expression in cultured neurones.

Recent findings indicate that progesterone can attenuate the beneficial neural effects of oestrogen. In the present study, we investigated the hypothesis that progesterone can modulate oestrogen actions by regulating the expression and activity of oestrogen receptors, ERalpha and ERbeta. Our studies in cultured neurones demonstrate that progesterone decreases the expression of both ERalpha and ERbeta and, as a consequence, also reduces both ER-dependent transcriptional activity and neuroprotection. These results identify a potential mechanism by which progesterone antagonises neural oestrogen actions, a finding that may have important implications for hormone therapy in postmenopausal women.

Non-invasive assessment of lower extremity muscle composition after incomplete spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. OBJECTIVE: (1) To quantify intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) content of the soleus muscle. (2) To assess the T(2) relaxation rates in the lower extremity skeletal muscles in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Academic Institution, Florida. METHODS: Eight subjects (42+/-10 years old; 70+/-12 kg; 176+/-10 cm) with chronic (17+/-9 months post injury) motor SCI (C4-T12; ASIA C or D) and eight matched healthy controls were tested. Localized unsuppressed proton spectroscopy (H-MRS) was performed to estimate total lipid content and individual lipid components; IMCL and extramyocellular lipid (EMCL) from the soleus muscle. T(2)-weighted imaging of lower extremity muscles yielded muscle T(2) rates. RESULTS: The IMCL content of the soleus muscle was 3.3 times higher in the patient group as compared to controls (P=0.002; 0.0401 (0.0234-0.0849) versus 0.0123 (0.0090-0.0175)). Similarly, EMCL measures were 4.5 times higher as compared to the controls (P=0.002). Significant differences were observed in the T(2) relaxation times of the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The increased levels of IMCL might interfere with the glucose uptake in skeletal muscle; potentially predisposing persons with incomplete SCI to the development of peripheral insulin resistance. Marked elevations in the T(2) relaxation times of the locomotor muscles are reflective of an altered muscle composition.

Resistance training and locomotor recovery after incomplete spinal cord injury: a case series.

STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal intervention case series. OBJECTIVE: To determine if a 12-week resistance and plyometric training program results in improved muscle function and locomotor speed after incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: University research setting. METHODS: Three ambulatory individuals with chronic (18.7+/-2.2 months post injury) motor incomplete SCI completed 12 weeks of lower extremity resistance training combined with plyometric training (RPT). Muscle maximum cross-sectional area (max-CSA) of the knee extensor (KE) and plantar flexor (PF) muscle groups was determined using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In addition, peak isometric torque, time to peak torque (T (20-80)), torque developed within the initial 220 ms of contraction (torque(220)) and average rate of torque development (ARTD) were calculated as indices of muscle function. Maximal as well as self-selected gait speeds were determined pre- and post-RPT during which the spatio-temporal characteristics, kinematics and kinetics of gait were measured. RESULTS: RPT resulted in improved peak torque production in the KE (28.9+/-4.4%) and PF (35.0+/-9.1%) muscle groups, as well as a decrease in T(20-80), an increased torque(220) and an increase ARTD in both muscle groups. In addition, an increase in self-selected (pre-RPT=0.77 m/s; post-RPT=1.03 m/s) and maximum (pre-RPT=1.08 m/s; post-RPT=1.47 m/s) gait speed was realized. Increased gait speeds were accompanied by bilateral increases in propulsion and hip excursion as well as increased lower extremity joint powers. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of lower extremity RPT can attenuate existing neuromuscular impairments and improve gait speed in persons after incomplete SCI.

Parameter sensitivity analysis of IL-6 signalling pathways.

Signal transduction pathways generally consist of a large number of individual components and have an even greater number of parameters describing their reaction kinetics. Although the structure of some signalling pathways can be found in the literature, many of the parameters are not well known and they would need to be re-estimated from experimental data for each specific case. However it is not feasible to estimate hundreds of parameters because of the cost of the experiments associated with generating data. Parameter sensitivity analysis can address this situation as it investigates how the system behaviour is changed by variations of parameters and the analysis identifies which parameters play a key role in signal transduction. Only these important parameters need then be re-estimated using data from further experiments. This article presents a detailed parameter sensitivity analysis of the JAK/STAT and MAPK signal transduction pathway that is used for signalling by the cytokine IL-6. As no parameter sensitivity analysis technique is known to work best for all situations, a comparison of the results returned by four techniques is presented: differential analysis, the Morris method, a sampling-based approach and the Fourier amplitude sensitivity test. The recruitment of the transcription factor STAT3 to the dimer of the phosphorylated receptor complex is determined as the most important step by the sensitivity analysis. Additionally, the desphosphorylation of the nuclear STAT3 dimer by PP2 as well as feedback inhibition by SOCS3 are found to play an important role for signal transduction.

Characterization of the domain chaos convection state by the largest Lyapunov exponent.

Using numerical integrations of the Boussinesq equations in rotating cylindrical domains with realistic boundary conditions, we have computed the value of the largest Lyapunov exponent lambda1 for a variety of aspect ratios and driving strengths. We study in particular the domain chaos state, which bifurcates supercritically from the conducting fluid state and involves extended propagating fronts as well as point defects. We compare our results with those from Egolf, [Nature 404, 733 (2000)], who suggested that the value of lambda1 for the spiral defect chaos state of a convecting fluid was determined primarily by bursts of instability arising from short-lived, spatially localized dislocation nucleation events. We also show that the quantity lambda1 is not intensive for aspect ratios Gamma over the range 20

Lower extremity skeletal muscle function in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study design. OBJECTIVES: To characterize and specifically quantify impairments in muscle function after chronic incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. METHODS: Voluntary and electrically elicited contractile measurements were performed and voluntary activation deficits were quantitatively determined in the knee extensor and ankle plantar flexor muscle groups in 10 individuals with chronic incomplete SCI (C5-T8, ASIA C or D) and age-, gender-, height- and body weight matched healthy controls. RESULTS: Persons with incomplete-SCI were able to produce only 36 and 24% of the knee extensor torque and 38 and 26% of the plantar flexor torque generated by noninjured controls in the self-reported less-involved and more-involved limbs, respectively (P<0.05). In addition, both indices of explosive or instantaneous muscle strength, torque200 (absolute torque reached at 200 ms) and the average rate of torque development (ARTD) were dramatically reduced in the ankle plantar flexor and knee extensor muscle groups in persons with incomplete-SCI. However, the deficit in instantaneous muscle strength was most pronounced in the ankle plantar flexor muscles, with an 11.7-fold difference between the torque200 measured in the self-reported more involved limb and a 5-fold difference in the less-involved limb compared to control muscles. Voluntary activation deficits ranged between 42 and 66% in both muscle groups. Interestingly, electrically elicited contractile properties did not differ between the groups. CONCLUSION: The resultant impact of incomplete-SCI is that affected muscles not only become weak, but slow to develop voluntary torque. We speculate that the large deficit in torque200 and ARTD in the ankle plantar flexors muscles of persons with incomplete-SCI may limit locomotor function. The results presented in this study provide a quantitative and sensitive assessment of muscle function upon which future research examining rehabilitation programs aimed at restoring muscle function and promoting functional recovery after incomplete-SCI may be based.

Adsorption of comb copolymers on weakly attractive solid surfaces.

In this work continuum and lattice Monte Carlo simulation methods are used to study the adsorption of linear and comb polymers on flat surfaces. Selected polymer segments, located at the tips of the side chains in comb polymers or equally spaced along the linear polymers, are attracted to each other and to the surface via square-well potentials. The rest of the polymer segments are modeled as tangent hard spheres in the continuum model and as self-avoiding random walks in the lattice model. Results are presented in terms of segment-density profiles, distribution functions, and radii of gyration of the adsorbed polymers. At infinite dilution the presence of short side chains promotes the adsorption of polymers favoring both a decrease in the depletion-layer thickness and a spreading of the polymer molecule on the surface. The presence of long side chains favors the adsorption of polymers on the surface, but does not permit the spreading of the polymers. At finite concentration linear polymers and comb polymers with long side chains readily adsorb on the solid surface, while comb polymers with short side chains are unlikely to adsorb. The simple models of comb copolymers with short side chains used here show properties similar to those of associating polymers and of globular proteins in aqueous solutions, and can be used as a first approximation to investigate the mechanism of adsorption of proteins onto hydrophobic surfaces.

X-ray diffraction and Raman studies of the CuGeO3(III)-(IV) transformation under high pressures.

Both X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy measurement were carried out on the same powder sample of CuGeO(3)(III) in a diamond anvil cell to high pressures at room temperature. The phase transformation of (III)-(IV) phase was observed at about 7GPa with both methods and the results were also in accord with previous powder diffraction and Raman measurements, respectively. However, the powder diffraction data were strikingly different from those reported in a recent single-crystal study on the phase (III). It is, therefore, evident that the phase transformations in CuGeO(3)(III) would be as complicated as those in CuGeO(3)(I) and that the monoclinic phase obtained from single-crystal phase (III) at approximately 7GPa is not the phase (IV) previously observed but rather a new phase (IVa) in CuGeO(3).

Computer simulation study of pattern transfer in AB diblock copolymer film adsorbed on a heterogeneous surface.

In this work we investigate how a pattern imposed in a copolymer film at a certain distance from the surface propagates through the film onto an adsorbing heterogeneous surface. We bias the copolymer film to adopt a specified target pattern and then use simulation to design a surface pattern that helps the adsorbed film to maintain that target pattern. We examine the effect of varying the copolymer chain length, the size of the target pattern, and the distance from the surface where the target pattern is applied, z', on the extent of pattern transfer. For each chain length, target pattern, and z' we compare the energy of the system when a pattern is applied in the bulk to the energy when no pattern is applied in order to understand why a certain pattern size is transferred to the surface with higher fidelity than the others. At constant chain length, pattern transfer is best when the pattern size brings the energy of the system close to the energy when no pattern is applied. At constant pattern size, pattern transfer is best in the systems with longer chains. This is because longer chains are more likely to adsorb as brushes and loops which then helps transfer the pattern through the adsorbed film down to the surface.

Expression profiling analysis of the metabolic and inflammatory changes following burn injury in rats.

Burn injury initiates an inflammatory response as part of the healing process that is associated with extensive metabolic adjustments. While most studies have focused on understanding these changes from a biochemical perspective, not much work has been done to characterize these processes at the gene expression level. As a first step, we have comprehensively analyzed changes in gene expression in rat livers during the first 24 h after burn injury using Affymetrix GeneChips, which showed 339 genes to be differentially expressed at a statistical significance of P < 0.05 and changed at least twofold. Functional classification based on gene ontology terms indicated that two categories, metabolism (28%) and inflammation (14%), accounted for nearly 42%. Detailed analysis of the metabolism group of genes indicated that fatty acid (FA) and triglyceride (TG) biosynthesis in the liver were unchanged, whereas TG utilization, FA import, and beta-oxidation increased after burn injury. The increased FA pools after burn injury appear to serve as substrates for ATP production. Following burn injury, the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway was suppressed while cholesterol was increasingly imported and converted into bile acids. The inflammatory genes that were altered included several classic acute phase response markers, as well as genes involved in the complement, kinin, clotting, and fibrinolytic protein systems. These temporally coordinated changes in gene expression were also corroborated by biochemical measurements for FA, TG, cholesterol, and ATP. Together, these data indicate that FA are increasingly imported and oxidized in the liver to meet the enhanced energy demands arising from an inflammatory response during the first 24 h after burn injury.