Characterization of spring and durum wheat using non-destructive synchrotron phase contrast X-ray microtomography during storage.

Post-harvest losses during cereal grain storage are a big concern in both developing and developed countries, where spring and durum wheat are staple food grains. Varieties under these classes behave differently under storage, which affects their end storage life. High resolution imaging data of dry as well as spoiled seed are not available for any class of wheat; therefore, an attempt was made to generate 3D data for better understanding of seed structure and changes due to spoilage. Six wheat varieties (3 varieties for each class of wheat) were stored for 5 week at 17% moisture content (wb) before scanning. Seeds were also stored in a freezer (-18 °C) for further scanning to determine if any changes occur in the structure of seeds due to freezing. Spring varieties of wheat performed better than durum varieties and freezing did not affect seed structure. Data could also help plant breeders to develop varieties that do not easily spoil, adjust grain processing techniques, and develop post-harvest recommendations for other wheat varieties.

Non-Destructive Assessment of Microstructural Changes in Kabuli Chickpeas during Storage.

The potential of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and synchrotron phase-contrast micro computed tomography (SR-µCT) was evaluated to determine changes in chickpea quality during storage. Chickpea samples were stored for 16 wk at different combinations of moisture contents (MC of 9%, 11%, 13%, and 15% wet basis) and temperatures (10 °C, 20 °C, and 30 °C). Hyperspectral imaging was utilized to investigate the overall quality deterioration, and SR-µCT was used to study the microstructural changes during storage. Principal component analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) were used as multivariate data analysis approaches for HSI data. Principal component analysis successfully grouped the samples based on relative humidity (RH) and storage temperatures, and the PLS-DA classification also resulted in reliable accuracy (between 80 and 99%) for RH-based and temperature-based classification. The SR-µCT results revealed that microstructural changes in kernels (9% and 15% MC) were dominant at higher temperatures (above 20 °C) as compared to lower temperatures (10 °C) during storage due to accelerated spoilage at higher temperatures (above 20 °C). Chickpeas which had internal irregularities like cracked endosperm and air spaces before storage were spoiled at lower moisture from 8 wk of storage.

Quality Characterization of Fava Bean-Fortified Bread Using Hyperspectral Imaging.

As the demand for alternative protein sources and nutritional improvement in baked goods grows, integrating legume-based ingredients, such as fava beans, into wheat flour presents an innovative alternative. This study investigates the potential of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) to predict the protein content (short-wave infrared (SWIR) range)) of fava bean-fortified bread and classify them based on their color characteristics (visible-near-infrared (Vis-NIR) range). Different multivariate analysis tools, such as principal component analysis (PCA), partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), and partial least square regression (PLSR), were utilized to assess the protein distribution and color quality parameters of bread samples. The result of the PLS-DA in the SWIR range yielded a classification accuracy of ˃99%, successfully classifying the samples based on their protein contents (low protein and high protein). The PLSR model showed an RMSEC of 0.086% and an RMSECV of 0.094%. Also, the external validation resulted in an RMSEP of 0.064%. The PLSR model possessed the capability to efficiently predict the protein content of the bread samples. The results suggest that HSI can be successfully used to classify bread samples based on their protein content and for the prediction of protein composition. Hyperspectral imaging can therefore be reliably implemented for the quality monitoring of baked goods in commercial bakeries.

Synergistic and antagonistic effects of temperature and moisture differences on movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) adults in horizontal columns of wheat.

The distribution of insects in stored grain bulks is significantly influenced by temperature and moisture, or their gradients or differences. This study examined the movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) adults under different combinations of temperature (5 or 10°C) and moisture differences (2.5 or 5 percentage point difference) in horizontal 1 m wheat columns in 24 h. Adults showed a nonoriented distribution in dry or damp wheat (less than 15% moisture content), while the distribution was partially biased in wet wheat (17.5% moisture content) due to slightly increased temperature or spoilage of the wet wheat in 1 replicate. Adults showed a positive response to warm and damp or wet wheat. Under any levels of temperature (5 or 10°C) and moisture differences (2.5 or 5 percentage points) in 24 h, about 75% of adults were recovered from moist wheat where insects were introduced. Adults equally preferred both moist cool grain and dry warm grain located at ±â€…0.25 m. However, the preference for dry warm grain was stronger than moist cool grain when the movement distance was 0.45 m. The sensing ability of adults and their preferences were not only determined by movement distance but also by the magnitude of temperature and moisture differences. Thus, the findings of the present study will help in better understanding adult response to realistic temperature and moisture distributions that commonly occur in storage structures and to develop stored grain ecosystems mathematical models.

Population dynamics of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in wheat and in wheat mixed with cracked wheat held in different types of containers.

The population dynamics of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), red flour beetle, was studied at 30 °C using long vertical columns (LVCs) (150 mm diameter and 1,020 mm long) and shallow containers (SCs) (460 mm long, 660 mm wide, and 150 mm high), containing 14 kg of whole wheat or a diet made of whole wheat and cracked wheat in 19:1 ratio by mass. The moisture content of the wheat or mixed diet was 14.5% (wb). Every 4 wk and up to 24 wk the live and dead adults were counted in the SCs or in each section of the LVCs. Each LVC was separated into 10 equal sections before removing grain from the LVC. After counting, the grains were incubated at 30 °C and 70% RH for 4 wk, and emerged adults after re-incubation were counted as offspring. The adults and offspring were mainly concentrated in the top section of the LVCs, which could be due to higher mortality in the lower sections and preference of T. castaneum for the surface of grain bulk. The diet influenced the population, and the insects developed better in the cracked wheat-based diet. Greater surface area of the container increased the multiplication and/ or survival of T. castaneum and insects inside SCs with larger surface area and with cracked wheat-based diet, had quicker population increase rate and larger carrying capacity than LVCs.

Mapping biochemical and nutritional changes in durum wheat due to spoilage during storage.

Synchrotron X-ray imaging and spectroscopy techniques were used for studying changes during post-harvest storage of food grains. Three varieties (AAC Spitfire, CDC Defy, and AAC Stronghold) of the Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD) wheat class were stored for five weeks at 17 % moisture content (wb). Control (dry) and stored moistened seeds were analyzed for biochemical and nutritional changes using synchrotron bulk X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SR-XRF), X-ray fluorescence imaging (SR-XFI), and mid-infrared (mid-IR) spectroscopy at the Canadian Light Source (CLS), Saskatoon, SK. All varieties of durum wheat were spoiled at the end of five week, and AAC Spitfire and CDC Defy varieties were most affected in nutritional composition and their distribution than AAC Stronghold. Variable response to changes in biochemical and nutrition were found in all three spoiled varieties of the same durum wheat class.

Study of Microstructural, Nutritional, and Biochemical Changes in Hulled and Hulless Barley during Storage Using X-ray and Infrared Techniques.

Four varieties of barley (Esma, AC Metacalf, Tradition, and AB Cattlelac), representing four Canadian barley classes, were stored at 17% moisture content (mc) for 8 week. Stored barely was characterized using synchrotron X-ray phase contrast microcomputed tomography, synchrotron X-ray fluorescence imaging, and mid-infrared spectroscopy at the Canadian Light Source, Saskatoon. The deterioration was observed in all the selected varieties of barley at the end of 8 week of storage. Changes due to spoilage over time were observed in the grain microstructure and its nutrient distribution and composition. This study underscores the critical importance of the initial condition of barley grain microstructure in determining its storage life, particularly under unfavorable conditions. The hulled barley varieties showed more deterioration in microstructure than the hulless varieties of barley, where a direct correlation between microstructural changes and alterations in nutritional content was found. All selected barley classes showed changes in the distribution of nutrients (Ca, Fe, K, Mn, Cu, and Zn), but the two-row AC Metcalf variety exhibited more substantial variations in their nutrient distribution (Zn and Mn) than the other three varieties during storage. The two-row class barley varieties showed more changes in biochemical components (protein, lipids, and carbohydrates) than the six-row class varieties.

Response of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) adults to small temperature (0-6 °C) and moisture (1%) differences in wheat.

Insects respond to temperature and moisture and their differences or gradients in grain bulks, but how small these differences can be is unknown. Response of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) adults to 0-6 °C temperature differences in 1 m wheat (12.5% moisture content, w.b.) columns was determined in 24 h. Similarly, the moisture response of the adults was determined in 1 m grain columns with a 1 percentage point difference in the wheat moisture content (12.5 and 13.5%) at 25 °C in 24 h. Adults were highly temperature and moisture sensitive and were able to respond to the lowest temperature difference of 1 °C and moisture difference of 1 percentage point within the wheat column. The temperature preference of the adults was confirmed with the recovery of about 78% of insects from the middle warmer sections of wheat at 25 or 30 °C when there was no temperature difference at other sections of the wheat columns. Irrespective of the temperature differences, on average of about 29% of adults moved towards the warmer end with the highest recovery of 47.3% observed at the temperature difference of 6 °C. The adult recovery from high-moisture locations decreased with an increase in distance away from the point of insect introduction (0.05-0.45 m). About 14% of adults moved to the furthest location of high-moisture ends (13.5% moisture content wheat) at 0.45 m. This study provided valuable insights for the development of mathematical models to predict 3D insect movement and distribution in storage grain bins.

Biology, Ecology, and Behavior of Rusty Grain Beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens)).

Cryptolestes ferrugineus, the rusty grain beetle, is a cosmopolitan pest that has adapted to cool and warm climates due to its unique biology, ecology, and behavior. The rusty grain beetle is a pest of high economic importance; hence, understanding their biology, ecology, and behavior could be useful in designing effective management strategies. An extensive literature survey was conducted using the databases Web of Science and Scopus. Information on country-wise publications from 1949 to 2023 on C. ferrugineus was provided, and a table illustrating the distribution of C. ferrugineus was also presented to demonstrate the global significance of C. ferrugineus. We overviewed their life stages, morphology, and factors influencing their biology, ecology, and behavior, such as refuge-seeking behavior, flight activity, mating behavior, interspecific interaction with other species, movement, and distribution. Mathematical models focusing on C. ferrugineus population dynamics and movement were also presented. In order to advance our knowledge on C. ferrugineus, the following possible avenues for future research were outlined: application of molecular markers and population genetic approaches to understand their evolutionary history; mechanisms responsible for adaptation and resistance to insecticide; interspecific interaction in storage facilities and wider landscapes; and identification of microbial roles in the ecology, behavior, and control of C. ferrugineus.

Applications of imaging systems for the assessment of quality characteristics of bread and other baked goods: A review.

One of the most widely researched topics in the food industry is bread quality analysis. Different techniques have been developed to assess the quality characteristics of bakery products. However, in the last few decades, the advancement in sensor and computational technologies has increased the use of computer vision to analyze food quality (e.g., bakery products). Despite a large number of publications on the application of imaging methods in the bakery industry, comprehensive reviews detailing the use of conventional analytical techniques and imaging methods for the quality analysis of baked goods are limited. Therefore, this review aims to critically analyze the conventional methods and explore the potential of imaging techniques for the quality assessment of baked products. This review provides an in-depth assessment of the different conventional techniques used for the quality analysis of baked goods which include methods to record the physical characteristics of bread and analyze its quality, sensory-based methods, nutritional-based methods, and the use of dough rheological data for end-product quality prediction. Furthermore, an overview of the image processing stages is presented herein. We also discuss, comprehensively, the applications of imaging techniques for assessing the quality of bread and other baked goods. These applications include studying and predicting baked goods' quality characteristics (color, texture, size, and shape) and classifying them based on these features. The limitations of both conventional techniques (e.g., destructive, laborious, error-prone, and expensive) and imaging methods (e.g., illumination, humidity, and noise) and the future direction of the use of imaging methods for quality analysis of bakery products are discussed.

Synchrotron tomography applications in agriculture and food sciences research: a review.

Synchrotron imaging is widely used for research in many scientific disciplines. This article introduces the characteristics of synchrotron X-ray imaging and its applications in agriculture and food science research. The agriculture and food sector are a vast area that comprises of plants, seeds, animals, food and their products; soils with thriving microbial communities; and natural resources such as water, fertilizers, and organic matter. These entities have unique internal features, structures and compositions which differentiate them from each other in varieties, species, grades, and types. The use of a bright and tuneable monochromatic source of synchrotron imaging techniques enables researchers to study the internal features and compositions of plants, seeds, soil and food in a quick and non-destructive way to enhance their use, conservation and productivity. Synchrotron's different X-ray imaging techniques offer a wide domain of applications, which make them perfect to enhance the understanding of structures of raw and processed food products to promote food safety and security. Therefore, this paper summarizes the results of major experiments carried out with seeds, plants, soil, food and relevant areas of agricultural sciences with more emphasis on two synchrotron X-ray imaging techniques: absorption and phase-contrast imaging and computed tomography.

Movement and Distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) Adults Under Different Temperature Differences in Different Lengths of Horizontal Grain Columns.

Understanding insect movement and distribution is critical for developing an effective insect pest management protocol. Movement and distribution of adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) in response to nominal temperature differences of 5, 10, 15, and 20°C in 1- and 2-m horizontal columns filled with 12.5% moisture content wheat were studied in 24, 48, and 72 h of movement times. In the wheat columns without temperature differences, adults had a diffusion distribution pattern caused by their random movement. Adults showed bias movement to the warmer grain in wheat columns with temperature differences and preferred the warmer grain regardless of the magnitude of temperature differences in less than 24 h. Their distribution did not have significant differences among different movement times in 1- or 2-m columns. About 40% of adults moved to the warmer wheat located at 0.4 to 0.5 m in the 1 m column but did not move to the warmer wheat located at 0.9 to 1 m in the 2-m column. Therefore, length of grain column influenced detection of warmer grain by insects. Adults under different temperatures had a similar response as that under linear temperature gradients.

Effects of Insect Density, Movement Period, and Temperature on Three-Dimensional Movement and Distribution of Adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae).

Knowledge on three-dimensional (3D) movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) in grain bulks assists in the prediction of their distribution inside a bin. The following experiments were conducted to determine the 3D dispersal patterns of adult C. ferrugineus in wheat with 14.5% moisture content: 1) at various insect densities (0.35, 1.77 and 3.53 A/kg (adults/kg) at 20°C and in 24 h movement period; 2) in different movement periods (6, 24, and 72 h) at 20°C and 0.35 A/kg insect density; and 3) at different temperatures (20, 30 and 35°C) at 0.35 A/kg density in 24 h movement period. To create the densities of 0.35, 1.77, and 3.53 A/kg, 100, 500, and 1,000 adults were introduced in about 285 kg wheat, respectively. The 285 kg of wheat was kept in 343 mesh cubes, which in turn were packed in a wooden box. The introduced adults were counted at the end of the movement periods. Adult C. ferrugineus tended to move downward from the point of introduction, and then diffused throughout the grain bulk. The effects of insect densities, movement periods, and temperatures on the dispersion pattern of insects were similar in 1D columns, 2D chambers, and 3D grain bulk.

Mathematical Modeling of Population Dynamics of Trogoderma granarium (Coleoptera: Dermistidae).

Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts, is one of the economically important quarantine pests that mainly feeds on food grain and proteinaceous materials. Its total development time lasts approximately 40-45 d under favorable environmental conditions. Extreme temperatures, high relative humidity (RH), high larval densities, or low food quality can induce a larval diapause, where the insect can survive for up to a few years, occasionally feeding and molting. Ecological modeling is a helpful tool to study the population dynamics of biological systems. Physi-Biological age method is based on temperature-driven development rate, and factors such as RH and food quality were considered as multipliers. The objective of this study was to develop mathematical models to calculate the survival and development of adults, eggs, larvae, pupae, and oviposition and diapause under different environmental conditions such as temperature, RH, and food quality. Algorithms were developed to simulate the population dynamics for each day and coded in C++. The developed models were validated against the literature data and evaluated using linear regression, R2, and MSE. Population dynamics were simulated under Canadian grain storage conditions, and the developed models predicted that the diapausing larvae survived the extremely cold conditions found in Canadian grain. In contrast, other stages did not survive. The surviving larvae developed to pupae and adults, and females began laying eggs once the temperature became warmer in the grain bins.

Implications of Blending Pulse and Wheat Flours on Rheology and Quality Characteristics of Baked Goods: A Review.

Bread is one of the most widely consumed foods in all regions of the world. Wheat flour being its principal ingredient is a cereal crop low in protein. The protein content of a whole grain of wheat is about 12-15% and is deficit in some essential amino acids, for example, lysine. Conversely, the protein and fibre contents of legume crops are between 20 and 35% and 15 and 35%, respectively, depending on the type and cultivar of the legume. The importance of protein-rich diets for the growth and development of body organs and tissues as well as the overall functionality of the body is significant. Thus, in the last two decades, there has been a greater interest in the studies on the utilization of legumes in bread production and how the incorporation impacts the quality characteristics of the bread and the breadmaking process. The addition of plant-based protein flours has been shown to produce an improved quality characteristic, especially the nutritional quality aspect of bread. The objective of this review is to synthesize and critically investigate the body of research on the impact of adding legume flours on the rheological attributes of dough and the quality and baking characteristics of bread.

Three-dimensional Movement and Distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) Adults in Stored Wheat Under Constant Temperatures and Moisture Contents.

Understanding the movement and distribution of insects inside a grain bin is crucial to develop an effective stored grain management protocol. The three-dimensional movement and distribution of adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) at 20 and 30°C were determined in a 0.7 × 0.7 × 0.7 m3 (internal dimensions) wooden box filled with wheat of uniform moisture contents (12.5 ± 0.1%, 14.5 ± 0.1%, and 16.5 ± 0.1% wet basis). The wheat at a constant moisture content was filled into 343 mesh cubes (0.1 × 0.1 × 0.1 m3) and placed inside the wooden box. The center mesh cube in the box had one hundred adult insects introduced at the beginning of the movement. After 24 h, the 343 mesh cubes were removed from the wooden box in less than 45 min. Finally, the contents of each mesh cube were sieved, and the insects counted. Each experiment was replicated three times. A maximum of 17% of insects stayed at the introduced cube (center of the wooden box). About 50-88% of the introduced adults moved downward from the introduction location at the studied temperatures and moisture contents. This 24 h study showed that C. ferrugineus movements in three dimensions follow a diffusion pattern in the horizontal direction and move downward due to the 'drift' effect and geotaxis in the vertical direction.

Attractiveness of Male and Female Adults of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) to Conspecifics With and Without Grain.

Whether stored-grain insects can communicate with each other inside stored-grain bulks is an important question for the development of pest management programs. Movements of the individual adults of Cryptolestes ferrugineus towards caged adult(s), in the presence or absence of wheat, were studied inside an apparatus (10 cm length), using an infrared camera. The numbers of the caged adults were 1, 20, or 50 of females or males, and 100 or 200 mixed-sex adults. Without grain, both males and females moved towards the caged single male, but not the caged single female. With grain, neither males nor females moved towards the caged single male or female. When 50 males were added to the cage, females did move significantly towards the caged males. There were trends for introduced males and females to move towards caged males at higher densities.

Mortality of Different Stages of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at Three Temperatures in Controlled Atmosphere of High Nitrogen.

The lethal exposure time to controlled atmospheres of high nitrogen at stored grain temperatures is an important information for control of stored-product insects. The mortality of 1-d-old egg, 1-wk-old (first or second instar) larva, 3-wk-old (fourth or fifth instar) larva, and 1-d-old pupa of Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) was determined at 18 ± 1, 23 ± 1, and 28 ± 1°C in 98% N2 mixed with air. At 18°C, the lethal exposure times to achieve 100% mortality were 12.7 ± 0.7, 16.3 ± 0.3, 19.7 ± 0.7, and 14.7 ± 0.7 d for 1-d-old egg, 1-wk-old larva, 3-wk-old larva, and 1-d-old pupa, respectively. Temperature had significant effect on the lethal exposure time, and increase of the temperature significantly decreased the lethal exposure time. The order of the insect stages from the highest to lowest for LT50 values was follows: 3-wk-old larva > 1-wk-old larva > 1-d-old pupa ≥ 1-d-old egg. The minimum lethal exposure times required to kill all stages of P. interpunctella were about 20, 16, and 12 d at 18, 23, and 28°C, respectively.

A Novel, Portable and Fast Moisture Content Measuring Method for Grains Based on an Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Radar Module and the Mode Matching Method.

To perform fast and portable grain moisture measurements under field conditions, a novel moisture sensor was designed, which consisted of a coaxial waveguide, a circular waveguide, and an isolation layer. The electromagnetic characteristics of the sensor were simulated and measured. The analytical model, which represented the relationship between the reflection coefficient of the sensor and the complex permittivity of grain, was established by using the mode matching method. The reflection coefficient of the sensor was measured by using an ultra-wideband (UWB) radar module, and the moisture content of grains was calculated from the complex permittivity by using density-independent model. To verify the performance of the proposed method, wheat, rough rice, and barley were taken as examples. The measured results in the range from 1.0% to 26.0%, wet basis, agreed well with the reference values (R2 was more than 0.99), and the maximum absolute errors for wheat, rough rice, and barley were 1.1%, 1.0%, and 1.4%, respectively. In addition, the effect of isolation layer was discussed. Both the simulation results and the experimental results showed that the isolation layer improved the stability of sensor.

Static and dynamic methods to determine adsorption isotherms of hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) with different percentages of dockage.

Adsorption and desorption isotherms of hemp seeds with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% of dockage were determined using the salt solution static (SSS) method. The wet hemp seeds with 0% dockage were also dried at 30℃ with 50% RH, 35℃ with 30% and 50% RH, and 40℃ with 30% and 50% RH inside a thin-layer dryer (thin-layer dynamic method). The hemp seeds with different percentages of dockage showed hysteresis, and this hysteresis became more obvious with the decrease of temperature. At the same condition, the equilibrium moisture content of hemp seeds with 0% dockage was approximately 0.5 percent points lower than that of the hemp seeds with dockage. The best equation to fit the equilibrium moisture content data under constant temperature and RH was the modified GAB equation for both adsorption and desorption isotherms. The constant rate period of drying was observed for <0.75 hr when drying air RH was 30% or when drying air temperature was 40℃. The Henderson and Pabis model was the best model to fit the thin-layer drying data. The equilibrium moisture contents measured by the SSS method were lower than those measured by the thin-layer dynamic method when temperature was ≤35℃.